Fundamentals and Practical Aspects of Gas Injection

470 Pages·2021·10.325 MB·English

by  Reza Azin, Amin Izadpanahi

Petroleum Engineering
Reza Azin
Amin Izadpanahi Editors
Fundamentals and
Practical Aspects of
Gas Injection
Petroleum Engineering
Editor-in-Chief
GbengaOluyemi,RobertGordonUniversity,Aberdeen,Aberdeenshire,UK
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·
Reza Azin Amin Izadpanahi
Editors
Fundamentals and Practical
Aspects of Gas Injection
Editors
RezaAzin AminIzadpanahi
PetroleumEngineering OilandGasResearchCenter
PersianGulfUniversity PersianGulfUniversity
Bushehr,Iran Bushehr,Iran
ISSN2366-2646 ISSN2366-2654 (electronic)
PetroleumEngineering
ISBN978-3-030-77199-7 ISBN978-3-030-77200-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77200-0
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Preface
Gasinjectionhasbeenusedasameansofpressuremaintenanceinthesecondaryoil
recoveryandinthetertiaryoilrecoveryasEnhancedOilRecovery(EOR)techniques.
Theconceptandoperationofgasinjectionstartednearlytwodecadesafterindustrial
oilproductioninthenineteenthcenturywhentheoperatorsfacedwiththepressure
declineinthereservoirandfoundtheproducedgasasanabundantsourcetoreinject
andovercometheproblem.Manyfieldcasesusedvariousinjectinggases,ranging
fromnon-hydrocarbontohydrocarbon,leantoenriched,orimmiscibletomiscible.
Theoperatingconditionsvaryfromonecasetoanother,dependingonthegeological
conditionsofthereservoir,itsrockandfluidproperties,andtheavailabilityofgas
sourcestoinject.Theobjectiveofgasinjectionmayalsobedifferentfromoneproject
toanother.Thisbookreviewssomeoftheapplicationsofgasinjectionandcombines
thenewfeaturesaswellassomekeychallengesassociatedwithgasinjection.
Thebookisorganizedintotenchapters.Chapter1providesanoverviewofthe
hydrocarbon resources worldwide as well as a historical review of the gas injec-
tion operation. In Chap. 2, some of the key issues related to Pressure–Volume–
Temperature(PVT)arereviewed.Thephasediagramofinjectiongas,reservoiroil,
andtheirmixturesarepresentedanddiscussed.Also,importantPVTexperiments,
including CCE, DL, CVD, flash separation, and swelling test are discussed and
supported by worked examples. Chapter 3 deals with basic concepts of oil and
gas flow in porous media. In this chapter, single- and two-phase flow concepts
are reviewed. Different flow equations, including viscous, pre-Darcy, Darcy, and
Brinkman flow are introduced and the boundary between these flow regimes is
presented. The well-known diffusivity equation which is a combination of conti-
nuity equation and Darcy velocity is also introduced and discussed. The relative
permeability as an important concept in two-phase flow through porous media is
described and the forces affecting oil flow in porous media are introduced as well
as different dimensionless numbers which reflect the relative importance of forces
duringoilflow.Chapter4focusesonUndergroundGasStorage(UGS)asaspecial
gas injection applied for peak shaving and balancing the supply and demand of
naturalgas.InChap.5,gasinjectionintothegascapknownaspressuremaintenance
isintroduced.Theconceptofpressuremaintenance,historicalapproach,mechanistic
v
vi Preface
modeling,andreservoirmaterialbalancearediscussed,followedbypressuremain-
tenance models and mechanisms in fractured reservoirs. Chapter 6 deals with gas
recyclingandaddressesconceptual,economical,historical,andoperationalaspects
ofthegasrecyclingoperation.Chapter7focusesonthedesignofsurfacefacilities
forgasinjection.Inthischapter,conceptualdesign,designconsiderationsandbasis,
andthegenerallayoutofagasinjectionfacilityaredescribed.Then,elementsofa
surfacefacilityareintroducedanddescribedindetail.Chapter8presentsmethods
for predicting the water content of gases, mostly based on equations of state and
rigorousthermodynamicmodels.Differentmethodsofpredictingthewatercontent
ofacidgassystemsareevaluated andthewatercontentdiagramscompatiblewith
the experimental data for pure CO , H S, CH , and their mixture are presented.
2 2 4
Also, the hydrocarbon and non-hydrocarbon gases solubility in water, calculation
of gas solubility in water using Henry’s constant law and the effect of salinity on
gas solubility are presented in this chapter. The structure of Chap. 8 is based on
engineering procedures and worked examples and may be used as an engineering
guide to predict the water content of gases and gas solubility in brine. Chapter 9
focusesonthemostimportantchallengesincludingthecorrosionindifferenttypes
ofgasinjection,gravityoverride,mobilitycontrol,caprockintegrity,trapping,and
Health,SafetyandEnvironment(HSE)ofgasinjection.Theseconceptsmusttake
into account before, during, and after a gas injection project to increase the effi-
ciency of the project. Chapter 10 deals with capillary trapping in porous media.
Theconcepts,types,models,andcorrelationsforphasetrappingarepresentedand
discussed in this chapter. References are added at the end of each chapter. Also,
somechapterscontainusefulinformationasappendix.Inpreparingthecontentsof
thisbook,morethanonethousandreferenceswerereviewedcomprehensively.Also,
manychaptersincludeworkedexamplestomakeaclearcontentandfieldapplication
Bushehr,Iran RezaAzin
March2021 AminIzadpanahi
Acknowledgements
Anumberofscientists,professors,andindustrialexpertscontributedtothechapters
ofthisbook.TheseincludeProf.MahmoodMoshfeghian,Prof.ShahriarOsfouri,Dr.
AhmadJamili,Dr.AliRanjbar,Dr.AlirezaShahkarami,Dr.MohamadMohamadi-
Baghmolaei, Ahmad Banafi, Amin Izadpanahi, Fatemeh Kazemi, Parviz Zahedi-
zadeh,andPooyaAghaeeShabankareh.Also,theauthorsvisitedseveraloilandgas
injectionandproductionfacilitiesandhadtechnicalmeetingswithindustrialexperts
to get better insight into details of gas injection operations. I’d like to acknowl-
edgeRezaHeidari,MohammadAbdali,andDr.HamidKhedriandappreciatetheir
technicalsupportandvaluablesuggestions.
RezaAzin
ProfessorofPetroleumEngineering
[email protected]
vii
Contents
1 IntroductiontoGasInjection ................................... 1
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andAlirezaShahkarami
2 PVTofGasInjection .......................................... 23
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andShahriarOsfouri
3 BasicsofOilandGasFlowinReservoirs ........................ 73
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andParvizZahedizadeh
4 GasInjectionforUndergroundGasStorage(UGS) ............... 143
RezaAzinandAminIzadpanahi
5 Gas Injection for Pressure Maintenance in Fractured
Reservoirs .................................................... 175
AhmadJamili,AminIzadpanahi,PooyaAghaeeShabankareh,
andRezaAzin
6 GasRecycling ................................................. 277
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andMohamadMohamadi-Baghmolaei
7 DesignofSubsurfaceandSurfaceFacilitiesforGasInjection ...... 319
RezaAzinandAhmadBanafi
8 Water-HydrocarbonsSystem ................................... 351
AminIzadpanahiandRezaAzin
9 ChallengesofGasInjection .................................... 397
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andAliRanjbar
10 CapillaryPhaseTrapping ...................................... 415
FatemehKazemi,RezaAzin,andShahriarOsfouri
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction to Gas Injection
RezaAzin,AminIzadpanahi,andAlirezaShahkarami
Abstract This chapter describes the different methods and the application of gas
injectionintheoilandgasindustryandenvironmentalpurposes.Forthispurpose,first
theworldwidehydrocarbondistributionisstudiedwhichcategorizedasconventional
andunconventionalresources.Also,thegraphicaldistributionisreportedusingthe
lateststatisticsofconventionalandunconventionalhydrocarbonresources.Second,
thestepsofrecoveryofoilreservoirsarestudiedwhichconsistofprimary,secondary
andtertiaryoilrecovery.Gasinjectionisperformedforimprovementofoilrecovery
in the secondary and tertiaryoil recovery. Environmental protection and reduction
ofgreenhousegasesisanothergoalofgasinjection.Third,variousrelevantaspects
including, historical evolution, screening criteria, sources of gas and economic of
gasinjectionareinvestigated.
1.1 Introduction
Rapid economic growth and population increment have led to a severe increase in
energy demand in all around the world. According to the BP statistical review of
world energy in 2016, fossil fuels among different natural energy resources, have
thelargestcontribution(nearly80%)insupplyingtheworld’senergyneeds.Also,it
hasbeenestimatedthatfossilfuelswillremainthepredominantsourcesofenergy
by 2035 [1]. Nonetheless, these most widely used energy sources have numerous
B
R.Azin( )
DepartmentofPetroleumEngineering,FacultyofPetroleum,GasandPetrochemicalEngineering,
PersianGulfUniversity,Bushehr,Iran
e-mail:[email protected]
A.Izadpanahi
OilandGasResearchCenter,PersianGulfUniversity,Bushehr,Iran
e-mail:[email protected]
A.Shahkarami
SaintFrancisUniversity,Loretto,PA,USA
e-mail:[email protected]
©TheAuthor(s),underexclusivelicensetoSpringerNatureSwitzerlandAG2022 1
R.AzinandA.Izadpanahi(eds.),FundamentalsandPracticalAspects
ofGasInjection,PetroleumEngineering,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-77200-0_1