Functional Diversity of Mycorrhiza and Sustainable Agriculture. Management to Overcome Biotic and Abiotic Stresses

241 Pages·2017·7.82 MB·English

by  Michael J. Goss

Functional Diversity of Mycorrhiza
and Sustainable Agriculture
Functional Diversity
of Mycorrhiza
and Sustainable
Agriculture
Management to Overcome Biotic and
Abiotic Stresses
Michael J. Goss
Schoolof Environmental Sciences, University of Guelph,
Guelph,Ontario,Canada
Ma´rio Carvalho
InstituteofMediterranean Agriculture and Environmental Sciences,
University of E´vora, E´vora, Portugal
Isabel Brito
InstituteofMediterranean Agriculture and Environmental Sciences,
University of E´vora, E´vora, Portugal
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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 The rapid increase inworldpopulation since 2
1960 and the associated reduction inthe average
area ofarable landper person.
Figure 1.2 The urbanization ofthe worldpopulation since 3
1961.
Figure B1.2.1 Increment inthe use offertilizers, pesticides and 7
production in theworld between 1960 and 1990.
Figure B1.2.2 Effectofsoil organicmatter (SOM) on the use 8
efficiency ofinputsto wheat productionin the
Southof Portugal.
Figure B2.1.1 Effectofsoil organicmatter on wheat response to 22
nitrogenfertilizer application.
Figure 2.1 Rhizosphere andmycorrhizosphere interactions 27
undercovercrops and crop rotationsthat
encourage thepresence and diversityof AMF and
the benefits of these andother beneficial
microbes in plant productivity.
Figure 4.1 The proportion ofroot colonized by arbuscular 77
mycorrhizalfungi (AMF) from Developer plants
relativeto that ofthe same plant dependant
mainlyon spores for colonization.
Figure 5.1 Effects ofadding phosphorus intheform of 93
hydroxyapatiteon the formationof nodules on
bean roots by R.phaseoliin theabsenceand
presence of arbuscular mycorrhiza.
Figure 5.2 The effects ofapplying phosphatefertilizer on the 99
developmentand effectiveness ofthe tripartite
symbiosis between soybean,indigenous AMF,
and Bradyrhizobium japonicum.
Figure 5.3 Effectofkeeping theextraradical myceliumintact 100
ratherthan disruptedprior to sowing soybeans on
the effectiveness ofnodulescolonized by free-
living wild type rhizobium and the added benefit
from inoculation with themore effective strain
532C.
ix
x ListofFigures
Figure5.4 PotsofTrifoliumsubterraneumL.6weeksafter 101
plantinginsoilcontaining22.6mgMnkg-1.
Figure5.5 Effectsof developer ERM, presence and integrity, 102
on colonization rateby indigenous AMF (based
on arbusculeformation) and dry weight of shoots
and root nodules ofTrifolium subterraneum L.21
days after sowing.
Figure5.6 Relationship between colonization rate, based on 102
arbuscule formation 21 days after sowing, and
shootdry weight, and Mn concentration inthe
roots of Trifolium subterraneum L.42 days after
sowing.
Figure5.7 Relationship between Mn concentration in the 103
roots,shoot Ncontent and Nodule dry weight in
Trifolium subterraneum L.42 daysaftersowing.
Figure5.8 Main bacterialgroups considered toparticipatein 104
activities inthemycorrhizosphere.
Figure6.1 Arbuscular colonization ofthe second plant ina 118
succession, grown inundisturbed soil. ERM was
the main source ofAMF propagulewhen
Ornithopus was the first plant inthe succession.
Figure6.2 Shootdry weight of thesecondplant ina 118
succession, grown inundisturbed soil. ERM was
the main source ofAMF propagulewhen
Ornithopus was the first plant inthe succession.
Figure8.1 Arbuscular colonization (AC) of wheat by 148
indigenous AMF 10 days, 21 days, and
subterranean clover 21 days after planting.
Figure8.2 Shootdry weight of wheat and subterranean 149
clover 21 daysafterplanting.
Figure8.3 Effect ofthe propaguletype from indigenousAMF 150
in thesoil atthe time of planting on manganese
concentration in wheat shoots and subterranean
clover shoots and roots,21 days after planting.
Figure8.4 Relationship between shootdry weight, 21 days 151
after planting and Mn concentration inthe shoots
of wheat orroots ofsubterranean clover.
Figure8.5 Effect ofthe indigenousarbuscularmycorrhiza 152
(AM) on noduledry weights, shootNcontent,
and shootdry weight (SDW) ofsubterranean
clover 6 weeks after planting.
ListofFigures xi
Figure 8.6 Relationshipbetweenmycorrhizalcolonization 153
and Pand Sconcentrationin theshoots ofwheat
at 21 days after planting.
Figure 8.7 Representationofthesimilaritiesbetweenthe 153
communitystructuresofAMFpresentinwheat
rootsinsuccessiontoOrnithopuscompressusor
Loliumrigidumplantswithorwithoutsoil
disturbance,evaluatedby454-pyrosequencing
technique.
Figure 8.8 Representationof thesimilarities between the 154
communitystructures ofAMF presentinrootsof
subterraneancloverinsuccessiontoOrnithopus
compressusorLoliumrigidumplantswithor
withoutsoildisturbance,evaluatedby454-
pyrosequencingtechnique.
Figure 8.9 Comparison of an intact extraradicalmycelium 157
(ERM)with ERM disrupted on,shootdry weight,
P content, and arbuscular colonization rate,
in wheat.
Figure 8.10 Comparison of thepresence ofan intactwith a 158
disrupted extraradical mycelium(ERM)atplanting
on the content of alkalineelements and S in
wheat.
Figure 8.11 Effectofthe presenceof an intact or disrupted 158
extraradical mycelium (ERM)atthe time of maize
plantingon AMFarbuscular colonization %and
colonized root density, underfour P levels
applied tothe soil.
Figure 8.12 Effectofthe presenceof intact or disrupted 159
extraradical mycelium (ERM)ofarbuscular
mycorrhizalfungi (AMF) atthe time of maize
plantingon the shoot dryweight(SDW) andP
content, underfour P levels applied tothe soil.
Figure 8.13 Effectofthe presenceof an intact or disrupted 160
extraradical mycelium (ERM)atthe time of maize
plantingon the shoot Nand K content,underfour
P levels appliedto thesoil.
Figure 8.14 Effectofthe presenceof intact or disrupted 160
extraradical mycelium (ERM)atthe time of maize
plantingon the shoot Ca and S content, under
four P levels applied tothe soil.
xii ListofFigures
Figure8.15 Effect ofthe presenceof an intact or disrupted 163
extraradical mycelium (ERM) ofarbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) atthe time of tomato
plantingon the shoot dry weight,disease
incidence (DI) and arbuscular colonization (AC)
21 daysafter planting under inoculation of
tomatoplantswith Fusarium oxysporum f.sp.
radicis-lycopersici.
Figure8.16 Diagram ofthefieldexperiment with tomato. 164
Figure8.17 Benefits for total and redfruit tomatoproduction 166
and reducedplant mortality from the switch toa
winter covercrop (barley) with reduced tillage in
spring,from thetraditional practice.Results from
a field experiment in thepresence ofFusarium
oxysporum.
List of Plates
PlateB1.3.1 Arbuscule (4003). 11
PlateB1.3.2 Hyphal Coils (2003). 11
PlateB1.3.3 Vesicle(2003). 12
Plate3.1 AMF colonized root (2003). 40
Plate6.1 (A)Hyphopodium(2003);(B)hyphalintercellular 115
growthandarbuscules(2003);(C)arbuscule(4003).
Plate6.2 Vesicle(4003). 116
Plate6.3 Wheatroots colonized with “fine endophytes” 121
(2003).
Plate8.1 Growth ofwheat in soilcontaining excessive levels 149
of Mnfollowing colonization initiated by different
propagules.
Plate8.2 Growth ofwheat in soilcontaining excessive levels 150
of Mnfollowing colonization initiated by similar
types ofpropagulefrom indigenousarbuscular
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF).
Plate8.3 Effect ofthepresenceof an intact extraradical 161
mycelium (ERM) ofnative arbuscularmycorrhizal
fungi (AMF) developed inassociation with
Ornithopus compressus on thegrowthof theroots
of maize 21 days after planting.
Plate8.4 Gradefor evaluation ofdiseaseincidence (DI) at 162
the stembaseof tomato.
Plate8.5 Tomato plants, 14 daysold, inoculated with a 164
suspension of10-9conidia ofFusarium oxysporum
f.sp. radicis-lycopersici at planting.
Plate8.6 Field experiment with tomato. 165
xiii
List of Tables
Table1.1 Estimation ofrelative contributions toimproved 2
crop productionof increases inharvested land
area, crop yields and cropping intensity of
agricultureover theperiod from 1961 to 2005.
Table2.1 The characteristics, aims, and some essential 17
effectsof common tillage systems and potential
impacts on arbuscular mycorrhiza (AM).
Table2.2 Effectsoftillage,applicationofNfertilizer,useof 23
covercropsandeffectsofcroprotationonthe
changesinsoilorganiccarboninthetop0.3msoil
duringa15-yearexperimentincentralItaly.
TableB2.2.1 EffectofPappliedtothesoil:onthearbuscular 31
colonization,ontherootdensity,andoncolonized
rootdensityofmaize.
Table5.1 The concentration of main groups ofmicroflora 83
and fauna insoil.
Table6.1 Arbuscularcolonization (AC)ofhostplants used 124
todevelopextraradical mycelium (ERM) and AC
ofwheat and clover grown for 21 daysafter the
first plants inundisturbed soil (ERM intact) and
disturbed soil (ERM disrupted).
Table7.1 Characteristics of themycelium ofthe members of 137
three familiesof arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi
(AMF), including speed ofcolonization.
Table8.1 Design ofcroppingsystems toenhance arbuscular 145
mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) diversity and deliver
functional benefits to crops andecosystem
services.
Table8.2 Summaryofthe proposed strategy;mechanisms 169
and benefits for theconstructive management of
arbuscularmycorrhizal fungi (AMF) within
agricultural systems.
xv
Preface
The current world population of 7.5 billion is expected to be 20% greater by
2050 and so we have little over 33 years to ensure the means of producing
sufficient food to meet the expected demand. One of the options that previ-
ouslywere available tousfor expandingworld productionofcereals,vegeta-
bles, fruits, and meat, namely bringing more land into production, is no
longer possible and consequently we must everywhere increase the produc-
tivity of the land. But this time we must not attempt it without making every
effort to safeguard the environment. Put in a slightly different way, we have
to grow more but conserve the soil and its biodiversity, be more efficient in
terms of water use, improve nutrient-use efficiency so that fewer applied
nutrients end up contaminating our freshwater and eutrophying our lakes and
shallow seas or adversely affecting the quality of our air and contributing to
the atmospheric loading of greenhouse gases. If we add in a desire to reduce
the application of pesticides, especially those targeting root pathogens, it
would seem to represent an extremely challenging task. Perhaps it will be a
surprise to some that the answer to many of these challenges might well be
one result of the development of techniques that allow us to determine the
make-up of microorganisms, which has had huge impacts on soil science and
its application inagronomy.
Beginning with the ability to differentiate the fatty acid and phospholipid
profiles of microbial communities in soil and reaching the current status,
where the whole genetic code of an organism can be determined, the previ-
ously rather opaque world of soil microbiology is being clarified at an
unprecedented rate. From around the time that the word mycorrhiza was
coined by Frank in 1885, mycorrhizal fungi have been of interest because of
their special relationship with the vast majority of land plants. For agrono-
mists the most important are the endomycorrhizal fungi that produce tree-
shaped branched structures called arbuscules inside the cortex of most crop
plants. Evidence steadily accrued that established their importance in supply-
ing the essential element phosphorus to plants but the availability of mineral
fertilizers, such as superphosphate, caused many to assume that the contribu-
tion from mycorrhiza was unnecessary and even infertile soils the organisms
were more like parasites than partners of their hosts. But eventually there
came the realization that arbuscular mycorrhiza provided far more services
than supplying phosphorus. The recent appreciation of the biological
xvii