Table Of ContentD E S A R R O L L O O R G A N I Z A C I O N A L
Unidad 10
Lecturas
From organizational development
to change management: The
emergence of a new profession
Worren, Nicolay A M; Ruddle, Keith Moore, Karl
Fuente: Journal of Applied Behavioral Science 35, no. 3 (Sep 1999): p. 273-286
ISSN: 0021-8863 Number: 04515117 Copyright: Copyright NTL Institute Inc 1999
This article describes the emergence of change management as a service offering of
major consulting firms. The authors compare change management with traditional
organizational development (OD) in terms of theory and analytical framework, the
role of the interventionist, and intervention strategies. They argue that change man-
agement has the potential to become a discipline that can unite the different "thought
worlds" operating in the field of planned organizational change.
During the last decade, an increasing dis- legitimate change agent is already here.
satisfaction with traditional organizational Whereas Quinn (1993) talked about a vi-
development (OD) has surfaced (Jelinek & sion for a new profession, today it is mean-
Litterer, 1988). In his distinguished speaker ingful to speak about the emergence of a
address to the Academy of Management 6 new profession. OD principles and tech-
years ago, Robert E. Quinn (1993) con- niques are experiencing a renaissance,
cluded that OD has become irrelevant. The thanks to the growth of the field of change
demand for better ways of managing management, which is dedicated to tack-
change is enormously high, but Quinn ar- ling the kind of large-scale change that
gued that the field is invisible to the major- Quinn described. We observe that the ma-
ity of executives, that OD practitioners do jor consulting firms-- including those that
not understand business, that there is little in the past dealt exclusively with strategy
growth in OD departments, and that OD or operations-now have separate divisions
has failed to generate any interest among or competency groups specializing in
MBA students. He described a vision for a change management; many of these have
new profession based on the idea of "the published books on the topic. Examples
legitimate change agent"-a person who include "Real Change Agents" from
should understand both the world of busi- McKinsey & Co. (Katzenbach & Becker,
ness and the world of human relationships. 1996), "Accelerating Change" from Arthur
D. Little (Maira & Scott-Morgan, 1997),
We would argue, however, that there is no and "Transforming the Enterprise" from
need for creating a new profession: The Gemini Consulting (Gouillart & Kelly,
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1995). In terms of scale, Firm A is the lead- most authors define OD as planned inter-
ing firm, with approximately 5,000 profes- ventions aimed at increasing organizational
sionals in its change management compe- effectiveness (Beckhard,1969; French &
tency group and 53,000 consultants in total Bell,1990). Second, OD relies heavily on
(see Table 1).1 The consulting firms that concepts and research findings from the
we spoke with indicated that they expected behavioral sciences, primarily from psy-
further growth in the number of change chology (French & Bell, 1990). Third, OD
management consultants. is a long-term and continuous effort
(French & Bell, 1990). Fourth, OD is
We also note a growing number of univer- largely focused on human relations vari-
sities with research units dedicated to the ables (such as culture and climate, commu-
study of organizational change. Examples nication, leadership styles, and job satisfac-
include the Australian Graduate School of tion). Typical intervention strategies have
Management and Warwick and Sheffield been focused on the microlevel and include
universities in the United Kingdom. More- process consultation, team building, survey
over, we observe that the importance of the feedback, and work restructuring (French
human side of business change plays a cen- & Bell, 1990). Variations exist both in
tral part in the rhetoric employed by high- terms of theory and practice of OD (Dalin
profile top managers. For example, the & Rust, 1983). For example, some OD
CEO of a major U.S. corporation stated, consultants have focused on only one of
"the 90s is the decade when soft becomes these intervention strategies, whereas oth-
hard. Being able to manage the unpredict- ers have used different strategies in differ-
able human side becomes a significant dif- ent phases of a change effort. Early work
ferentiator between winners and losers." In treated OD in a "humanistic" manner as a
other words, quite in contrast to Quinn's social technology that should be governed
(1993) observations regarding OD, we find by employees (e.g., Walton & Warwick,
an area of tremendous growth with high 1973); other authors (e.g., Beckhard, 1969)
visibility to top managers. But to what ex- emphasized that OD should be managed
tent does change management differ from from the top. In some cases, the human
OD? Does the emergence of change man- process focus has been complemented with
agement signal a shift to a new paradigm interventions aimed at changing structure
for effecting organizational change? and work processes, such as sociotechnical
design principles (e.g., Pava, 1986).
It should be emphasized at the outset that
comparisons of this type are not straight- (Table Omitted)
forward. The field of OD has evolved over Captioned as: TABLE 1
time since its beginnings in the 1930s.
Even today, many different conceptions of The remainder of this article is divided into
OD exist in the literature. In the business two sections. In the first section, we con-
world, many change efforts have been trast OD as defined above with change
casually labeled "OD" even though they management as defined by major consult-
might have borne little resemblance to the ing firms. We will explore the possibility
type of programs prescribed in the litera- that change management is a new and dis-
ture. Nevertheless, we believe that there is tinct field rather than an extension of OD.
sufficient commonality to make compari- In particular, we will focus on three key
son possible. A review of the literature areas of difference: (a) the underlying the-
suggests four key dimensions to OD. First, ory and the analytical frameworks being
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used, (b) the role of the change agent or the management activities in the following
interventionist, and (c) the intervention way:2
strategies that are employed. In the second
section, we describe two major challenges Change Management is the discipline that
associated with implementing large-scale ensures organizations and employees meet
change: integration (i.e., creating congru- new and existing performance targets rap-
idly and effectively. We do this by helping
ence between strategic, OD, and techno-
clients create the right management disci-
logical/business process perspectives) and
plines and processes, organization struc-
navigation (the temporal management of
tures, culture, competencies and capability
the "change journey" as it unfolds over
for superior human performance so that
time). Finally, we mention the development
change goals are achieved and sustained.
of models and tools that are intended to
assist companies in integration and naviga-
At its essence, Change Management is
tion. based on two concepts: That human per-
formance is at the core of business per-
The analysis draws on our previous experi- formance; therefore we help clients build
ence with a large consulting firm, which the human performance in their organiza-
was one of the first to establish a separate tions.
change management practice. We have
That it's possible to optimize an organiza-
participated as consultants in a number of
tion's revenue and profit delivery during
large-scale change programs; we also have
change; therefore we help clients determine
observed how the firm is developing ana-
ways to manage the change process effec-
lytical tools and working approaches to
tively to ensure this occurs.
assist corporations in implementing strate-
gic change. Although we have worked with
In this definition, change management is
only one consulting firm, we have inter-
clearly broader than OD in that it includes
acted with consultants from practically all
a wide range of intervention strategies that
major consulting firms in our current role
may enhance human performance directly
as academics and executive teachers. We
or indirectly, including process consulta-
also conducted a telephone survey and re-
tion, work restructuring, strategic HRM
viewed published material about the
planning, and the design or development of
change management activities of other
information technology (IT) solutions (e.g.,
leading consulting firms (see Table 1).
user interface design) A crucial feature of
change management is that it is seen as
Theory and analytical
only one component of a larger organiza-
framework tional change effort, 35, no. 3 (Sep 1999):
p. 273-286the other components being
strategy, business processes, and technol-
In terms of its scope, the term change man-
ogy. The main objective is often to inte-
agement is currently used in a manner that
grate these components, for example, by
encompasses theory and intervention
creating a higher degree of congruence
strategies associated with what is known in
between strategic objectives and human
the academic literature as OD, human re-
resource policy (cf. Nadler,1988) or by
source management (HRM), project man-
building a new IT infrastructure to support
agement, and strategic change. One of the
cross-functional teams (cf. Davenport,
firms in our survey defined its change
1993). An important part of the knowledge
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base of change management is the aca- The classic view of the OD practitioner is
demic research on strategic change. Petti- the human process consultant or "facilita-
grew and Whipp (1993) and Kanter, Stein, tor." The facilitator is a neutral third party
and Jick (1992) have provided theoretical who, according to classic OD, should not
frameworks with their studies of major get involved in the substantive content or
change over time.3 In line with practitioner provide specific recommendations (French
models of holistic change, these studies & Bell, 1990). Picture an Argyris interven-
emphasize that moving from an old state to ing to alter managers' "defensive routines,"
one adapted to the future environment of- a Senge trying to draw "mental models," or
ten requires comprehensive change that a Schein collecting "clinical insights" about
involves many components, including hu- "tacit assumptions in the culture"
man behavior, culture, organizational struc- (Edmondson, 1996). The theories of Senge,
ture, work processes, and IT/infrastructure. Argyris, and Schein have informed change
management and continue to be used by its
The focus on individual change as a part of professionals, yet the facilitator model does
wider strategic and corporate-level change not correspond very well to the role of a
is something that until recently received change management professional.
scant attention in OD theory. The same can
be said about the enabling role of IT. Well- The most important difference is that
known OD theories such as those of Argy- change management consultants work in
ris, Schein, and Senge still focus on indi- teams. These teams consist of people with
vidual skills and attitudes with little regard complementary skills in such areas as strat-
for the role of structure and systems (cf. egy formulation, IT or business process
Edmondson, 1996). Katz and Kahn (1966) analysis, and organization design and de-
stated more than 30 years ago, "the major velopment. Unfortunately, whereas the role
error in dealing with problems of organiza- of the facilitator is well understood and
tional change, both at the practical and extensively documented thanks to the re-
theoretical level, is to disregard the sys- search of people like Lewin, Argyris,
temic properties of the organization and to Senge, and Schein, there is surprisingly
confuse individual change with modifica- little research on how teams of change
tion in organizational variables" (p. 390). management consultants interact with
This is not to say that the aforementioned managers over time during large-scale or-
theorists are totally unaware of these prob- ganizational change projects. One typical
lems. Argyris (1970, p. 337) pointed out view in OD textbooks (e.g., French & Bell,
that the success of process consultation was 1990) is that consultants act as "outside
dependent on follow-up changes in organ- experts" and therefore often fail to gain
izational structure and even technology. sufficient commitment for their recom-
However, it is only recently that relevant mendations. Although this might still be a
analytical frameworks have emerged and potential risk with some strategy consult-
that a profession has evolved that is dedi- ants, this view of the consultant role is es-
cated to implementing change by interven- sentially an outdated one. Practically all
tions aimed simultaneously at multiple major consulting firms now seek long-term
components of the organization. partnerships with their clients, and most of
the time, the teams consist of a combina-
The role of the interven- tion of client managers and consultants.
Client commitment and ownership are built
tionist
through a joint process of diagnosis, plan-
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ning, and implementation. It is often im- context affect changes in employee behav-
possible to single out specific reports as ior first, before attitudes, norms or skills
being the "consultant reports," because are well formed" (Beer & Walton, 1990, p.
more often than not they express the con- 160). Changes in formal structure and sys-
sensus of all members in a team consisting tems can then take place after commitment
of both consultants and client managers. In and competence have been developed by
this manner, change management essen- widespread involvement in the change
tially blends human process consultation process.
with technical interventions aimed at
changing systems and structure. The type of interpersonally oriented inter-
ventions prescribed in classic OD is obvi-
Intervention strategies ously only a subset of a larger number of
possible interventions. To be effective,
interventions must be tailored to the type of
Historically, perhaps the main contribution
problem one is trying to solve. In some
of OD is that it has helped focus attention
cases, technical or structural solutions may
on the social and psychological aspects of
be quite appropriate (cf. Herold, 1978). In
change. However, there are many ways of
discussing methods for enhancing team
dealing with the psychological aspects of
effectiveness, Hackman (1986) concluded
business change. In his earlier writings,
that improving the design of work might be
Argyris (1973) argued that changes in
a better approach than trying to modify
managerial attitudes and behavior must
individual motivation or group norms di-
usually precede changes in organization
rectly.
design. In classic OD, the basic assumption
(which fits the facilitator role described
Many of the tools used by change man-
above) is that you must change your atti-
agement professionals are identical to those
tudes or ideas (i.e., your mental model,
used in traditional OD; the difference is
metaphor, theory-in-use, or tacit assump-
that they are used with a different rationale,
tion) before you can change the structure or
in a different context, and often by differ-
technology of your organization. In con-
ent people. One example is attitude sur-
trast, most of the change management pro-
veys, which were used to inform manage-
fessionals we know lean more toward the
ment about employee morale already in the
view held by Michael Beer and his associ-
1930s. Since then, thousands of companies
ates (Beer, Eisenstat, & Spector, 1990;
have used employee attitude surveys to
Beer & Walton, 1990), who emphasize that
gauge job satisfaction and employees' per-
changes in both structure/systems and hu-
ceptions of the corporate culture or climate.
man process are necessary to effect attitude
Today, however, employee attitude surveys
and behavior change. The sequencing of
are often used to diagnose the capacity for
interventions should induce new behaviors
adapting to change and the degree to which
rather than trying to educate people about
new strategic initiatives are being imple-
them. The preferred intervention according
mented (Schneider, Ashworth, Higgs, &
to this model is one in which culture
Carr, 1996). Rather than being a stand-
change is an intended by-product of busi-
alone effort at assessing job satisfaction
ness-oriented change. Employees learn new
and climate, this tool is now routinely em-
behaviors and attitudes by participating in
ployed as part of strategy-driven and holis-
ad-hoc teams aimed at solving real busi-
tic change programs. The same is the case
ness problems. In other words, "Changes in
for individual-level and interpersonally
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oriented interventions, such as those devel- investigates the links between strategic
oped by Chris Argyris aimed at producing HRM (or "high performance work sys-
"double-loop" learning. During the 1960s, tems") and corporate financial perform-
these interventions were frequently con- ance. They define HRM as an "internally
ducted as isolated attempts at increasing consistent set of policies and practices that
trust and communication (Evans, 1989; ensure that a firm's human capital contrib-
Jelinek & Litterer, 1988). About a decade utes to the achievement of business objec-
ago, however, Argyris realized that this tives" (p. 171). The results show strong
was merely "a human resource goody." support for the assertion that strategic
Since then, he has become more interdisci- HRM enhances firm performance.
plinary oriented in trying to integrate such
interpersonal interventions with technical The challenges of integra-
disciplines (Argyris, 1996). Table 2 sum-
tion and navigation
marizes the features that distinguish current
thinking in change management from clas-
Traditional OD overlooked the enabling
sic OD.
role of infrastructure and the possibility of
technology-led change (Jelinek & Litterer,
There now is ample empirical evidence for
1988). In contrast, among managers the
the value of holistic approaches to change.
tendency is often the opposite: to focus
For example, Deborah Dougherty has car-
exclusively on technical and structural so-
ried out several case studies in manufactur-
lutions. Despite the fact that alignment be-
ing firms and found that implementation of
tween culture and technology is associated
new technologies is more successful when
with more successful outcomes (e.g.,
accompanied by changes in structure, poli-
Dougherty & Cohen, 1995; Powell &
cies, and culture at the same time. She con-
DentMicallef, 1997; Zammuto & O'Con-
cluded, "Piecemeal tweaks and incremental
nor, 1992), it is also the case that managers
shifts ( . . . ) are not enough. Managers
tend to perceive technical innovations as
need to grab the configuration and shift it
more effective than administrative innova-
all at once" (Dougherty & Cohen, 1995,
tions (Damanpour, 1990). This is perhaps
p.100). The idea of holistic change is a
why administrative change tends to lag
close analogy to a concept in strategic
related technical change (Symon & Clegg,
management, namely, complementarity.
1991). Integration and alignment between
Within the resource-based view of strategy
strategic, social, and technical components
(e.g., Barney, 1991; Teece & Pisano,
require collaboration between people pos-
1994), complementarity is said to exist
sessing skills in different areas. However,
when a resource produces greater returns in
such collaboration is often difficult. This is
the presence of another resource than it
why we consider integration one of two
does alone. Powell and Dent-Micallef
key challenges during large-scale organiza-
(1997) conducted a quantitative test of this
tional change. Dougherty (1992) has de-
proposition and found that IT has not pro-
scribed how functional and departmental
duced competitive advantage alone but that
"thought worlds" impede the collective
some firms have gained advantages by us-
action necessary for successful product
ing IT to leverage intangible, complemen-
innovation. Thought worlds selectively
tary resources such as flexible cultures,
filter information and insights. Thought
planning processes, and supplier relation-
worlds cannot easily share ideas and may
ships. Huselid, Jackson, and Schuler (
1997) are engaged in a line of research that
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view each other's central issues as mean- ganization design and requisite variety. The
ingless. principle of requisite variety states that "the
internal regulatory mechanisms of a system
(Table Omitted) must be as diverse as the environment with
Captioned as: TABLE 2 which it is trying to deal" (Morgan, 1986,
p. 47). The primary external requirement
We will make a similar claim when it for the change team is the task: A project
comes to organizational change: People may encompass interventions in strategic
with different educational backgrounds and processes, human resources, and business
functional responsibilities tend to develop processes, and the collective competence of
distinctive perspectives on how one should the team should therefore match these task
go about planning and executing organiza- requirements. A second requirement relates
tional change programs. Table 3 shows, in to effective communication and collabora-
a somewhat stylized manner, some of the tion with people outside the team (cf. An-
themes that differentiate thought worlds cona & Caldwell, 1992): The client per-
related to organizational change. There are sonnel who are involved may themselves
also a number of more subtle distinctions. have many different functional and profes-
For example, technical experts (e.g., manu- sional backgrounds, and an interdiscipli-
facturing engineers) tend to deal with tasks nary team is more likely to be able to
that can (and must) be standardized and communicate with these diverse constitu-
controlled so that they can be repeated in a ents.
reliable fashion. In contrast, the typical OD
practitioner tends to see routines and pro- (Table Omitted)
cedures as things that stifle creativity and Captioned as: TABLE 3
foster dissatisfaction (cf. Adler & Borys,
1996). The existence of different thought At the same time, integration requires
worlds frequently leads to conflicts both mechanisms that compensate for the cogni-
over the goals for the change program and tive and demographic diversity in the team.
the means selected to achieve the goals Integration is facilitated by strong sociali-
(e.g., "empowerment" vs. "programming"). zation practices that emphasize the linkage
The differences become even more en- between the different skills sets and knowl-
trenched and rigid if the change process is edge bases (e.g., joint training seminars
associated with high stress due to external involving both strategists, technologists,
threat or high risk of failure. Stress tends to and behavioral scientists). Consulting firms
increase reliance on the well-learned ele- also employ detailed and structured meth-
ments of cognitive and behavioral reper- odologies that facilitate "cognitive coordi-
toires (Sutton, 1990). nation," both between different consultants
and between consultants and the client sys-
In line with the view of holistic change tem. Standardized methodologies provide a
described above, both structural and cul- shared interface that enables the exchange
tural solutions must be developed to of experience and ideas across disciplinary
achieve integration. As we have indicated and functional boundaries (Werr, Stjern-
above, consulting firms routinely employ berg, & Docherty, 1996; Worren, Moore,
cross-functional teams in which all per- & Elliott, 1998).
spectives are represented. The emergence
of interdisciplinary teams can be under- A second major challenge is the ongoing
stood by means of existing theory on or- management over time of the change pro-
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gram (Pettigrew & Whipp, 1993), which could be different camps during a mountain
we call navigation. This usually involves ascent). In the same way as for more de-
various high-level project-management tailed methodologies, such high-level cog-
tasks, such as the coordination of a number nitive maps should facilitate understanding
of interrelated projects and the measure- and coordination between different thought
ment of progress against milestones (Neill worlds (Werr et al., 1996).
& Hemstritch, 1995). As mentioned above,
a major issue in terms of navigation is the Transformational change can be revolu-
sequencing of interventions over time (e.g., tionary in outcome yet evolutionary in exe-
when to introduce changes in formal struc- cution. The goal for many consulting firms
ture). As the change program unfolds, the is to build a cumulative knowledge base so
context may also change, creating the need that new change programs can build on
for continuous adaptations. It is often diffi- previous experience. In looking toward
cult to strike the right balance between top- future developments in the field, we be-
down direction on one hand and participa- lieve that both researchers and consulting
tion, empowerment, and flexibility on the firms will continue efforts at codifying the
other. The most successful change pro- often tacit knowledge about change proc-
grams are able to use bureaucratic means esses. One promising trend is the develop-
such as standardization and formal working ment of a more systematic understanding
arrangements in a creative and enabling of different types of change journeys. The
way, which facilitate rather than hinder research reported in Miller and Friesen
innovation (Adler & Borys, 1996; Craig, (1980) shows that changes come in pack-
1995). Ruddle and Feeny (1997) describe ages: The same types of transitions tend to
different approaches to navigation in a recur frequently even across firms with
study of British companies. Programmatic highly different characteristics. Efforts are
leadership (i.e., detailed planning and top- under way at developing typologies of
down management) of the change program change journeys, based on a categorization
might be appropriate where the destination of context, content, and process. Ongoing
and change journey are predictable and the research looks at how different companies
time-scale for action short. A more trans- achieve transformational change and aims
formational leadership style is necessary at building a typology that describes jour-
when radical shifts are required in a context neys over time (Huy, 1998; Ruddle &
of high uncertainty. Feeny, 1997). With a typology in hand, it
will be possible to develop a more contin-
Both integration and navigation are facili- gency-oriented, prescriptive framework for
tated by shared cognitive maps about change management. By collecting infor-
change. One example of such a map is the mation on a set of performance measures at
"journey metaphor" used by many consult- different stages of the journeys, it will be
ing firms. By comparing change to a jour- possible to develop benchmarks that will
ney, one can draw analogies to journeys allow comparisons across companies. Da-
such as foreign travel or mountaineering, tabases with such information should allow
which require an itinerary or road map (a more systematic hypothesis testing of the
change program), a destination (the desired effectiveness of alternative change man-
outcome), monitoring of the steps along the agement strategies.
way, and possibly midcourse corrections
(navigation). Journeys might also be di- Discussion
vided into distinct phases (the analogy
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D E S A R R O L L O O R G A N I Z A C I O N A L
Our comparison between traditional OD human dimension. I've learned that's criti-
and change management defined by major cal" (White, 1996, p. 1). OD practitioners,
consulting firms suggests that change man- who have thought about people all along,
agement represents a new approach: There now concede they forgot about markets,
are differences with regard to underlying strategies, and computers. In the field of
theory and analytical framework, the role planned organizational change, one of the
of the change agent, and the preferred in- few things we know with some certainty is
tervention strategies. that change programs are rarely successful
if they are directed at only one component
Although the current literature lends sup- in isolation from others. A well-known
port to key ideas behind change manage- university president once stated that you
ment, there are, of course, differences with cannot lift a blanket by one corner; there
regard to the skills of both individual con- must be efforts at several points in order to
sultants and the capabilities of the different raise the standard.' Change management
consulting firms. For example, after pre- promises to be a discipline that will inte-
senting an earlier version of this article at grate the thought worlds that separate OD
the 1996 Academy of Management confer- from strategy and technology, thus ena-
ence, we received several letters from prac- bling the coordinated efforts necessary to
titioners trained in the classic OD tradition bring about strategic change.
who remarked that many change manage-
ment consultants often lack understanding Footnote:
of basic OD theory. A closer look at actual
change programs probably would reveal a
Editor's Note: The publication of this article
mixed picture of failures and successes,
on ". . . The Emergence ofa New Profession"
depending both on contextual factors and reflects JABS 's commitment to provide a fo-
the skills of the individual consultants in- rum for reporting and examining innovative
volved. However, this variability of skills developments in applied behavioral science.
does not detract from our argument. We The views expressed in the article are those of
believe that the emergence of change man- the authors. On some matters they do, and on
others they do not, reflect points of view held
agement is a significant trend, and we have
by members of the JABS Editorial Board. The
shown that the basic principles of this ap-
editor welcomes thoughtfully prepared com-
proach are well supported in current re-
ments about this article, if readers are stimu-
search on large-scale change and strategic
lated to write about their reactions. If the jour-
human resource management.
nal receives a number of such responses, we
shall publish some or all (depending on the
Conclusion number and quality) in a subsequent volume
and will provide the original authors with an
opportunity to respond to them.
The need for integrative and holistic ap-
proaches to managing change is now ac-
knowledged by people in many different
fields. After having launched the reengi-
neering movement, Michael Hammer now
admits that he forgot about people. "I was-
n't smart enough about that," he says. "I Notes
was reflecting my engineering background
and was insufficiently appreciative of the
© Worren, Ruddle & Moore From OD to change management.doc / pág. 9
D E S A R R O L L O O R G A N I Z A C I O N A L
1. The editorial policy of this journal is to Argyris, C. (1973). On organizations of the
use fictitious names for firms to protect future (Administrative and Policy
scientific integrity. Study Series 1, 03-006). Beverly
Hills, CA: Sage.
2. Different consulting firms describe Argyris, C. (1996). Unrecognized defenses
change management in equivalent terms. of scholars: Impact on theory and re-
See, for example, the description of the search. Organization Science, 7(1),
"Coopers & Lybrand Approach to Change 79-87.
Management" in Carr, Hardf, and Trahant
Barney, J. (1991). Firm resources and sus-
(1996, p. 143) or Gemini Consulting's
tained competitive advantage. Jour-
"Framework for Transformation" in Gouil-
nal of Management,17, 99-120.
lart and Kelly (1995, p. 1).
Beckhard, R. (1969). Organization devel-
opment: Strategies and models.
3. It is common for consulting firms to
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
form alliances with leading academics in
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