Table Of ContentJOHN BURTON, “Fortnight of Infamy represents an impressive debut for a young histo- BURTON While America was preoccupied with
a former naval the aftermath of Pearl Harbor, an
rian. The immediate aftermath of Pearl Harbor in the Far East has been
systems engineer even greater tragedy was unfolding
addressed before, but seldom with the breadth of scope and accuracy of
and sales and op- across Southeast Asia. From Wake Island
erations executive detail that John Burton brings to the aviation part of the story. The writ- to Burma, the Empire of Japan opened the
at IBM for twenty ing is good and the scholarship is top-notch, never failing to note where largest front in the history of warfare: an
years, has spent aircraft-driven invasion of colonial posses-
the record is incomplete or contradictory, and if he steps on the hooves of F
much of his life sions throughout the Far East that crumbled
studying the avia- some sacred cows, I say let ‘em moo.” O F the entire Western imperial legacy of the
tion industry and ORTNIGHT nineteenth century. Events during the fi rst
BARRETT TILLMAN R
aviation history. He lives and writes in two weeks of battle set the stage for the
Author of Clash of the Carriers T
Irvine, California. greatest military defeats America and Great
N
Britain would suffer during any confl ict.
“Americans tend to regard the attack on Pearl Harbor as the defi ning I
ALSO OF INTEREST FROM THE G OF INFAMY This book offers the fi rst comprehensive
event of the start of the Pacifi c War. In a strategic context, however, that
NAVAL INSTITUTE PRESS overview of the collapse of Allied air forces
H
attack was merely a preemptive strike aimed at preventing the U.S. Navy
during the period between December 8
T
The Dragon’s Way: Allied Operations from interfering with Japan’s main objective: the capture of Southeast and 24, 1941. Written for a wide audience,
and the Fate of China, 1937-1947, Asia. In Fortnight of Infamy, author John Burton has done an excellent job O it gives readers both a cockpit view of the
by Maochun Yu. ISBN: 1-59114-946-0 desperate actions that took place and an
of distilling into a single volume the often disjointed actions of Allied air F
The Collapse of Allied Airpower understanding of why such heavy losses
forces against the Japanese onslaught west of Pearl Harbor during the fi rst
From Mahan to Pearl Harbor: American I occurred. The narrative account includes
Strategic Theory and the Rise of the Imperial two weeks of World War Two in the Far East. In addition to providing a N enough detail and analysis to hold the
Japanese Navy, by Sadao Asada. detailed narrative account of their operations, John Burton’s clear and interest of serious students of Pacifi c War
F
ISBN: 1-55750-042-8. aviation and enough exciting descriptions
concise text probes the crucial factors responsible for the debacle suffered
A West of Pearl Harbor
of air combat to attract those with little
by American and British Commonwealth air units at Wake, the Philip-
Soldier Slaves: Abandoned by the White M knowledge of the subject.
House, Courts, and Congress, by James W. pines and Malaya during December 1941.”
Parkinson and Lee Benson. Y Explaining how and why the Japanese
OSAMU TAGAYA
ISBN: 1-59114-204-0 were able to win a quick victory, John
Author of Imperial Japanese Naval Aviator, Burton points to U.S. failures in the con-
* * * * * 1937-1945 cepts for employment of airpower and a
signifi cant underestimation of Japanese
For an illustrated catalog describing hundreds “air-mindedness” and aviation capabilities,
of books on a wide range of naval, military, and failures that resulted in the loss or surren-
maritime subjects, and for information about der of more than 200,000 troops at Bataan
joining the U.S. Naval Institute, please contact: and Singapore.
Member Services
U.S. Naval Institute
291 Wood Road JOHN BURTON Cover image: U.S. Navy yards in Cavite, Philippines,
burn after Japanese attack on December 12, 1941.
Annapolis, MD 21402-5034
Naval ©Corbis
Toll-free telephone: (800) 233-8764
Fax: (410) 571-1703 Institute
Jacket design: Chris Onrubia, Fineline Graphics LLC
Web address: www.usni.org
Press
PRINTED IN THE U.S.A.
Burton_jacket.indd 1 8/3/06 3:39:06 PM
FORTNIGHT
OF INFAMY
Map of the Far East.
F
ORTNIGHT
OF INFAMY
The Collapse of Allied Airpower
West of Pearl Harbor
JOHN BURTON
NAVAL INSTITUTE PRESS
Annapolis, Maryland
(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:86)(cid:3)
(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:74)(cid:88)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:42)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:85)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:47)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:17)
(cid:49)(cid:68)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:86)
(cid:21)(cid:28)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:82)(cid:68)(cid:71)
(cid:36)(cid:81)(cid:81)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:48)(cid:39)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:20)(cid:23)(cid:19)(cid:21)
(cid:139)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:82)(cid:75)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:37)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:81)
(cid:36)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:49)(cid:82)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:78)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:71)(cid:88)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:93)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:15)(cid:3)
(cid:72)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:92)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)
(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:89)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:86)(cid:92)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:82)(cid:88)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:85)(cid:82)(cid:80)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:88)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:17)
(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:37)(cid:49)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:28)(cid:26)(cid:27)(cid:16)(cid:20)(cid:16)(cid:25)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:20)(cid:16)(cid:24)(cid:21)(cid:23)(cid:16)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:72)(cid:37)(cid:82)(cid:82)(cid:78)(cid:12)
(cid:55)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:47)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:75)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:71)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:89)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:73)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:86)(cid:29)
(cid:37)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:82)(cid:75)(cid:81)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:25)(cid:22)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:41)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:75)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:73)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:29)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:82)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:86)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:79)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:83)(cid:82)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:90)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:43)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:69)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:39)(cid:72)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:69)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:23)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:18)(cid:3)(cid:45)(cid:82)(cid:75)(cid:81)(cid:3)
(cid:37)(cid:88)(cid:85)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:17)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:80)(cid:17)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:79)(cid:88)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:76)(cid:69)(cid:79)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:74)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:73)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:71)(cid:72)(cid:91)(cid:17)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:37)(cid:49)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:16)(cid:24)(cid:28)(cid:20)(cid:20)(cid:23)(cid:16)(cid:19)(cid:28)(cid:25)(cid:16)(cid:59)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:78)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:12)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:22)(cid:28)(cid:177)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:23)(cid:24)(cid:178)(cid:38)(cid:68)(cid:80)(cid:83)(cid:68)(cid:76)(cid:74)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:178)(cid:51)acific (cid:36)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:82)(cid:85)(cid:79)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:58)(cid:68)(cid:85)(cid:15)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:22)(cid:28)(cid:177)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:23)(cid:24)(cid:178)(cid:36)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:68)(cid:79)(cid:3)(cid:3)
(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:44)(cid:17)(cid:3)(cid:55)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:79)(cid:72)(cid:17)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:39)(cid:26)(cid:25)(cid:26)(cid:17)(cid:37)(cid:27)(cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:25)
(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:28)(cid:23)(cid:19)(cid:17)(cid:24)(cid:23)(cid:182)(cid:21)(cid:24)(cid:28)(cid:178)(cid:71)(cid:70)(cid:21)(cid:21)
(cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:3) (cid:21)(cid:19)(cid:19)(cid:25)(cid:19)(cid:20)(cid:24)(cid:24)(cid:23)(cid:21)
(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:72)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:84)(cid:88)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:49)(cid:54)(cid:44)(cid:18)(cid:49)(cid:44)(cid:54)(cid:50)(cid:3)(cid:93)(cid:22)(cid:28)(cid:17)(cid:23)(cid:27)(cid:16)(cid:20)(cid:28)(cid:28)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:11)(cid:51)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:80)(cid:68)(cid:81)(cid:72)(cid:81)(cid:70)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:51)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:12)(cid:17)
(cid:51)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:3)(cid:87)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:3)(cid:56)(cid:81)(cid:76)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:54)(cid:87)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:82)(cid:73)(cid:3)(cid:36)(cid:80)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:70)(cid:68)(cid:17)
(cid:20)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:20)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:20)(cid:19)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:28)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:27)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:27)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:26)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:25)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:24)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:23)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:22)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:21)(cid:3)(cid:3)(cid:20)
(cid:41)(cid:76)(cid:85)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:3)(cid:83)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:87)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:74)
(cid:48)(cid:68)(cid:83)(cid:86)(cid:3)(cid:70)(cid:85)(cid:72)(cid:68)(cid:87)(cid:72)(cid:71)(cid:3)(cid:69)(cid:92)(cid:3)(cid:38)(cid:75)(cid:85)(cid:76)(cid:86)(cid:87)(cid:82)(cid:83)(cid:75)(cid:72)(cid:85)(cid:3)(cid:53)(cid:82)(cid:69)(cid:76)(cid:81)(cid:86)(cid:82)(cid:81)(cid:17)
CONTENTS
Introduction vii
1 Path of the Rising Sun
Japan's Plan for Conquest in East Asia 1
2 Gateway to China
American Fortress in the Philippines 22
3 Marching to War
Preparations in Australia and Singapore 55
4 A Matter of Hours
The Final Week of Peace 71
5 The Battle for Kota Bharu
December 8, 1941—Malaya 88
6 Disaster on Luzon
December 8, 1941—Philippines 118
7 The Morning After
December 9, 1941 149
8 Lightning Strikes Twice
December 10, 1941 169
9 Reckoning
December 11–14, 1941 202
10 Exodus
December 15–21, 1941 234
11 Collapse
December 22–24, 1941 261
12 To Fight Another Day 282
Acknowledgments 305
Appendix
U.S. and Australian Combat Aircraft Losses 309
Notes 321
Bibliography 335
Index 339
v
INTRODUCTION
P
AUL PUTNAM WAS NOT INCLINED TO CONTEMPLATE his own misfor-
tune. Like most frontline unit commanders in the U.S. armed forces of
1941, the thirty-six-year-old major was too young to have partici-
pated in the Great War. Still, he was one of those few officers who
gained experience in the forgotten conflicts of the interwar period. His
first assignment as a lieutenant had been to a combat role during the
difficult campaign in the jungles of Nicaragua. Putnam was a career
soldier. He lived to fight wherever his country needed him, seldom
complaining. Those under his command were of the same nature.
They were United States Marines.
Despite their stoic resolve, Major Putnam and his aviators would
have been forgiven for cursing their current situation. They were lit-
erally a thousand miles from nowhere, completely surrounded by a
windswept sea and closer to their enemy than to the nearest friendly
base. An incessant crashing of waves on the nearby reef left their ears
constantly ringing. Even the booming voice of a drill sergeant was dif-
ficult to hear beyond the distance of a few yards. Outside the shadows
cast by briskly drifting puffy clouds, the sun was harshly bright, more
brilliant than in any desert. The blowing sand was relentless; fine
white coral dust and seashell fragments penetrated every corner of a
tent or barracks and lodged in the crevices of each piece of equipment.
Contrary to the typical tourist image of a Pacific island, there were no
palm trees to be seen. Shade and natural shelter were nonexistent.
Across the three small islets that formed the tiny atoll, hardly any
scrub trees rose more than a dozen feet. A single fifty-foot water
tower was the tallest feature on the islands.
The largest of the sandy dots in the ocean was the namesake for
the atoll: Wake. It housed the new airstrip where Putnam had just
assigned four of his pilots to man their planes. Ultimately intended to
have three runways in a triangular configuration, the station was
unfinished; only a single strip was usable. Though nearly five thousand
feet long and surfaced with crushed coral, barely a hundred feet of its
width had been completed; there was not even a place to safely taxi
vii
viii INTRODUCTION
aircraft outside the vicinity of that narrow, hard-packed surface.1
Although more than a thousand civilian construction workers labored
around Wake, the air station had taken a back seat to other activi-
ties—one of many problems the major desperately wanted to address.
As he watched his men climb onto the wings of their planes, he real-
ized he no longer had the time.
Word that Japan had attacked Hawaii—two thousand miles to the
rear of their position—came as a complete shock. The Marines could
not help but feel exposed. They expected treachery from the Japanese
but had been certain that news of the first hostile actions would
emanate from Manila, not Honolulu. Now, it seemed a sure bet that
their remote little island would be attacked sometime during the
already infamous day of December 1941—Sunday the seventh on
Pearl Harbor’s side of the international date line, Monday the eighth
at Wake’s longitude.
Paul Putnam was hard-pressed to prepare for the inevitable
Japanese air assault. Every U.S. military unit west of Pearl Harbor was
lacking in equipment and manpower. Marine Fighting Squadron 211
(VMF-211), which had just arrived at Wake on December 4, was no
exception. The squadron was short of everything. In fact, due to the
limitations of facilities on Wake, Putnam had to leave more than half
of his organization and most of its equipment in Hawaii when the
detachment departed from the air station at Ewa. He had only ten
other officers and forty-nine enlisted men remaining under his
command—just a fraction of the resource normally allocated to a
fighter squadron. They had very few tools and hardly any spare parts;
even maintenance manuals for the airplanes had been left behind.2
The Marines had traditionally been the “poor stepchildren” of the
navy. Marine aviators had mastered the art of making do with sub-
standard weapons and other gear. Major Putnam was used to receiv-
ing cast-off, secondhand equipment, but, for once, he could take pride
in the twelve brand-new Grumman F4F-3 Wildcats he now pos-
sessed. The blue-gray planes that sat next to Wake’s runway were
thebest the navy could provide. In many respects, they were the
bestfighters in the United States’ inventory during December 1941.
Powered by a 1,200-horsepower, fourteen-cylinder Pratt & Whitney
“Twin-Wasp” radial engine mated to a two-stage supercharger, these
early Wildcats could fly at altitudes of up to thirty-three thousand
feet. More important, peak performance was achieved at twenty
thousand feet, where an F4F-3 had a maximum airspeed of 338 miles
INTRODUCTION ix
per hour—just slightly faster than Japan’s best fighters. Contemporary
U.S. Army fighters may have looked sleeker, or have been faster at sea
level, but they literally gasped for air by the time they reached that
height. If one had to combat Japanese air forces above the realm of
fifteen thousand feet, Putnam’s Grummans were the most suitable
weapon to use.3
In spite of their usual difficulties obtaining up-to-date equipment,
the Marines did not often covet anything issued by the army. That
morning, however, the one thing that Major Paul Putnam wanted
more than anything else belonged to the army: a radar set earmarked
for installation at his airfield. Unfortunately, this important item had
been stored in a warehouse on Oahu. Shipping capacity was critically
low, and it still awaited transport to Wake.
Without air-search radar, VMF-211 was at a distinct disadvantage.
Lookouts on the water tower could not possibly spot incoming planes
that were more than a few miles away—too close for the squadron to
successfully muster a fighter scramble. Even continuous patrols by
alltwelve fighters could not ensure detection of approaching enemy
forces; there was too much ocean to cover, with too few planes. In any
case, the difficulty of maintaining the aircraft in the face of insufficient
replacement parts precluded such an idea. As a compromise, Major
Putnam intended to follow a routine of keeping four Grummans in
the air from dawn to dusk. Four more would always be on alert. The
others would be held in reserve, or set aside for servicing.
The protection of an early warning system would have been best,
but any protection for the valuable aircraft was welcome. It was some
consolation to Major Putnam that the atoll’s senior officer, Comman-
der Winfield Cunningham, agreed to authorize the Morrison-
Knudsen Company contractors to bulldoze revetments for VMF-211’s
planes. It would be an all-out, top-priority effort, but the task could
not possibly be completed before late afternoon. Until then, planes
parked on the ground would have to remain in the open. Putnam
fretted whether the Japanese would strike at Wake before the
bunkerlike shields were finished. Fueled and armed, the grounded
fighters were impotent and vulnerable.
The loud wheeze of starters engaging, followed by the sharp
cough of exhaust belching from igniting cylinders, was a welcome
sound. Paul Putnam watched with relief as slowly turning propellers
transformed into roaring, disklike blurs. He was thankful that at least
four Grummans would be off the ground within a few minutes. Two
