Forest mensuration

633 Pages·2016·16.661 MB·English

by  Bertram Husch, Thomas W. Beers, John A. Kershaw, Jr., Mark J. Ducey

Forest Mensuration
Forest Mensuration
Fifth Edition
John a. Kershaw, Jr.
MarK J. Ducey
thoMas w. Beers
BertraM husch
This edition first published 2017 © 1972, 1983, 1993, 2003, 2017 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data
Names: Kershaw, John A., Jr., 1962– author. | Ducey, Mark J., author. | Beers, Thomas W., author. |
Husch, Bertram, 1923– author.
Title: Forest mensuration / by John A Kershaw, Jr., Mark J Ducey, Thomas W Beers, Dr. Bertram Husch.
Description: Fifth edition. | Chichester, UK ; Hoboken, NJ : John Wiley & Sons, 2017. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2016036142| ISBN 9781118902035 (cloth) | ISBN 9781118902004 (epub)
Subjects: LCSH: Forests and forestry–Measurement. | Forest surveys.
Classification: LCC SD555 .K47 2017 | DDC 634.9–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016036142
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be
available in electronic books.
Set in 10/12pt Times by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India
1 2017
Contents
Preface xiv
1 Introduction 1
1.1. Role of Forest Mensuration in Forest Management, 2
1.2. Forest Mensuration as a Tool for Monitoring Forests, 3
1.3. Relevance of Forest Mensuration for Ecology and Nontimber Resources, 4
1.4. Design and Planning of Inventories, 5
1.4.1. Timber Estimation, 5
1.4.2. Nontimber Estimation, 7
1.4.3. Inventory Planning, 7
1.4.4. Forest Inventory Design, 10
1.4.5. Inventory Fieldwork, 11
2 Principles of Measurement 13
2.1. Scales of Measurement, 14
2.2. Units of Measurement, 16
2.3. Systems of Measurement, 16
2.3.1. International System of Units (Metric System), 16
2.3.2. Imperial System, 18
2.3.3. Conversions Between Systems, 20
2.4. Variables, 21
2.5. Precision, Accuracy, and Bias, 21
2.6. Significant Digits and Rounding Off, 23
2.6.1. Significant Digits in Measurements, 23
2.6.2. Rounding Off, 24
2.6.3. Significant Digits in Arithmetic Operations, 25
v
vi CONTENTS
2.7. Data Summary and Presentation, 27
2.7.1. Tables, 28
2.7.2. Graphic Presentation, 28
2.7.3. Class Limits, 29
2.8. Fundamental Measurements, 30
2.8.1. Linear Measurements, 30
2.8.2. Time Measurements, 31
2.8.3. Weight Measurements, 31
2.8.4. Area Measurements, 32
2.8.5. Volume Measurements, 33
3 Basic statistical Concepts 34
3.1. Descriptive Statistics, 34
3.1.1. Population, 35
3.1.2. Sample, 35
3.1.3. Statistics, 38
3.2. Frequency Distributions, 38
3.3. Measures of Central Tendency, 40
3.3.1. Arithmetic Mean, 40
3.3.2. Quadratic Mean, 41
3.3.3. Harmonic and Geometric Means, 42
3.3.4. Median and Mode, 42
3.4. Measures of Dispersion, 42
3.4.1. Variance and Standard Deviation, 43
3.4.2. Coefficient of Variation, 45
3.5. Sampling Error, 45
3.5.1. Standard Error of the Mean, 46
3.5.2. Confidence Interval, 48
3.6. Sample Size Determination, 50
3.7. Influence of Scalar Transformations
and the Estimation of Totals, 52
3.8. Correlation and Regression Estimation, 53
3.8.1. Covariance and Correlation, 53
3.8.2. Simple Linear Regression, 56
3.8.3. Goodness‐of‐Fit and Regression Diagnostics, 58
3.8.4. Multiple Regression and Transformations, 61
3.8.5. Advanced Topics in Regression Analysis, 63
3.9. Use of Covariates to Improve Estimation, 63
3.9.1. Ratio Estimation, 64
3.9.2. Regression Estimation, 65
4 Land Area Determination in Forest Mensuration 67
4.1. Land Distance and Area Units, 68
4.2. Measuring Distances, 68
4.2.1. Pacing, 69
4.2.2. Distances with Chains and Tapes, 69
CONTENTS vii
4.2.3. Optical Rangefinders, 71
4.2.4. Electronic Distance Measurement Devices, 71
4.2.5. Maps and Photos, 72
4.3. Measuring Area in the Field, 73
4.4. Measuring Area Using Maps and Photos, 73
4.4.1. Area by Coordinates, 73
4.4.2. Area by Dot Grids and Line Transects, 75
4.4.3. Area by Planimeters, 76
4.5. Determination of Photo Scale, 76
4.6. Determination of Direction Using a Compass, 80
4.6.1. Magnetic Declination, 80
4.7. The U.S. Public Land Surveys, 82
4.8. Global Positioning Systems, 86
4.8.1. Components of GPS, 86
4.8.2. How GPS Works, 86
4.8.3. Accuracy of GPS, 87
4.8.4. GPS Receivers, 88
4.8.5. Using GPS Data in Forest Mensuration, 89
4.9. Geographic Information Systems, 89
4.9.1. Applications of GIS to Forest Mensuration, 90
5 Individual tree Parameters 92
5.1. Age, 92
5.2. Tree Diameters and Cross‐Sectional Areas, 95
5.2.1. Instruments for Measuring Diameter, 98
5.2.2. Measurement of Upper‐Stem Diameters, 103
5.2.3. Cross‐Sectional Area, 104
5.2.4. Surface Areas, 106
5.2.5. Applications to Understory Plants, 107
5.3. Height, 108
5.3.1. Hypsometers Based on Similar Triangles, 110
5.3.2. Hypsometers Based on Trigonometry, 112
5.3.3. Special Considerations in Measuring Tree Heights, 117
5.3.4. Use of LiDAR, 120
5.4. Form, 121
5.4.1. Form Factors, 121
5.4.2. Form Quotients, 122
5.4.3. Taper Tables, Curves, and Formulas, 123
5.4.4. Slenderness, 124
5.5. Crown Parameters, 125
5.5.1. Crown Length, 125
5.5.2. Crown Diameter and Area, 126
5.5.3. Crown Surface Area and Volume, 127
5.5.4. Foliage Area and Biomass, 128
5.5.5. Other Crown Characteristics, 129
5.6. Regression and Allometric Approaches, 130
viii CONTENTS
5.6.1. Allometry of Standing Trees, 130
5.6.2. Applications to Seedlings, Saplings, and Understory Plants, 132
6 Determination of tree Volume, Weight, and Biomass 135
6.1. Measurement of Individual Trees, 137
6.1.1. Stem Dissection, 137
6.1.2. Volume Determination by Displacement, 138
6.1.3. Volume Determination by Formulas, 139
6.1.4. Determination of Cubic Volume by Graphical Methods
and Integration, 144
6.1.5. Determination of Crown and Root Volumes, 147
6.1.6. Determination of Bark Volume, 148
6.1.7. Weight Determination, 151
6.1.8. Biomass Determination, 153
6.1.9. Carbon and Nutrient Content Determination, 154
6.2. Allometric Equations for Volume, Weight, and Biomass, 156
6.2.1. Standard and Form Class Functions, 157
6.2.2. Local Functions, 158
6.2.3. Volume Functions to Upper‐Stem Diameter Limits, 159
6.3. Tabular Estimation, 160
6.3.1. Descriptive Information to Accompany Tables, 165
6.3.2. Checking Applicability of Tables, 166
6.3.3. Conversion of Volume Tables to Weight, Biomass, or Carbon
and Nutrient Tables, 166
6.4. Volume and Biomass Distribution in Trees, 167
6.4.1. Methods for Estimating Stem Volume Distribution, 167
6.4.2. Distribution of Weight and Biomass in Trees, 170
6.5. Other Methods of Estimating Tree Content, 173
6.5.1. Determination of Volume by Height Accumulation, 173
6.5.2. Importance Sampling and Centroid Methods, 176
6.6. Applications to Seedlings and Understory Vegetation, 179
6.7. Applications to Snags and Down Woody Material, 179
6.7.1. Standing Dead Trees, 179
6.7.2. Downed Woody Material, 181
7 Measurement of Primary Forest Products 184
7.1. Units of Measurement of Forest Products, 184
7.1.1. Board Foot, 184
7.1.2. Volume Units for Stacked Wood, 185
7.2. Log Rules, 186
7.3. Board Foot Log Rules, 186
7.3.1. Mill‐Study Log Rules, 187
7.3.2. Diagram Log Rules, 187
7.3.3. Mathematical Log Rules, 189
7.3.4. Combination Log Rules, 191
7.3.5. Comparison of Log Rules, 191
7.3.6. Tabular Presentation of Log Rules, 192
CONTENTS ix
7.4. Log Scaling, 195
7.4.1. Board Foot Scaling, 195
7.4.2. Cubic Volume Scaling, 198
7.4.3. Unmerchantable Logs, 198
7.4.4. Sample scaling, 198
7.5. Scaling Stacked Volume, 199
7.6. Volume Unit Conversion, 200
7.6.1. Determination of Solid Cubic Contents of Stacked Wood, 202
7.7. Scaling By Weight, 204
7.7.1. Weight Measurement of Pulpwood, 204
7.7.2. Weight Measurement of Sawlogs, 207
7.7.3. Weight Measurement of Pulp, 208
7.7.4. Weight Measurement of Other Forest Products, 209
8 stand Parameters 210
8.1. Age, 211
8.1.1. Even‐Aged and Single‐Cohort Stands, 211
8.1.2. Uneven‐Aged and Multicohort Stands, 211
8.2. Species Composition, 212
8.2.1. Describing Species Composition, 213
8.2.2. Number and Diversity of Species, 214
8.2.3. Assigning Stand Types, 218
8.3. Diameter, 219
8.3.1. Expressions of Mean Diameter, 220
8.3.2. Basal Area, 221
8.3.3. Diameter Distributions, 221
8.4. Height, 228
8.4.1. Expressions of Mean Height, 229
8.4.2. Height–Diameter Curves, 230
8.4.3. Height–Diameter Ratio, 231
8.5. Volume, Weight, and Biomass, 232
8.5.1. Volume, 232
8.5.2. Weight, Biomass, and Carbon Content, 234
8.5.3. Volume, Weight, and Biomass of Dead Wood, 235
8.6. Crown and Canopy Measurements, 236
8.6.1. Crown Closure and Canopy Cover, 236
8.6.2. Leaf Area Index, 237
8.7. Understory and Regeneration, 239
8.7.1. Density and Frequency, 240
8.7.2. Cover and Competition, 241
8.7.3. Biomass and Forage, 246
8.7.4. Regeneration Surveys, 247
8.8. Site Quality, 250
8.8.1. Geocentric Approaches, 251
8.8.2. Phytocentric Approaches Using Vegetation Composition, 253
8.8.3. Dendrocentric Approaches, 254
8.8.4. Preparation of Site Index Curves, 257
x CONTENTS
8.9. Density and Stocking, 259
8.9.1. Relative Density Based on Volume, 260
8.9.2. Stand Density Index, 261
8.9.3. Tree–Area Ratio, 263
8.9.4. Crown Competition Factor, 264
8.9.5. Relative Spacing, 266
8.9.6. Density of Mixed‐Species and Complex‐Structure Stands, 266
8.9.7. Point Density and Competition Indices, 266
8.9.8. Forest Stocking and Density Management Diagrams, 269
9 sampling Units for estimating Parameters 273
9.1. The Factor Concept, 274
9.2. Fixed‐Area Plots, 276
9.2.1. Circular Plots, 276
9.2.2. Square and Rectangular Plots, 277
9.2.3. Subplots, 278
9.2.4. Selection of Plots and Trees, 279
9.2.5. Stand and Stock Tables, 280
9.2.6. Boundary Slopover, 284
9.3. Sampling Trees with Variable Probability, 287
9.3.1. Horizontal Point Samples, 287
9.3.2. Stand and Stock Tables, 293
9.3.3. Boundary Slopover Bias, 296
9.3.4. Other Forms of Sampling Proportional to Size, 296
9.4. Other Examples of Variable Probability Sampling, 298
9.4.1. Point Intercept Sampling, 298
9.4.2. Line Intercept Sampling, 299
9.5. Distance‐Based Sampling Units, 299
9.5.1. Nearest‐Neighbor Methods, 299
9.5.2. Distance Sampling, 302
9.6. Selecting Appropriate Sampling Units, 303
10 sampling Designs in Forest Inventories 305
10.1. Basic Considerations, 305
10.1.1. Errors in Forest Inventories, 306
10.1.2. Confidence Limits, 308
10.1.3. Precision Level and Intensity, 310
10.2. Simple Random Sampling (SRS), 311
10.2.1. Influence of Plot Size on Simple Random Sample Designs, 315
10.3. Systematic Sampling (SYS), 318
10.3.1. Systematic Plot Sampling, 318
10.3.2. Sampling Error for a SYS Inventory, 322
10.3.3. Systematic Strip Sampling, 324
10.4. Selective or Opportunistic Sampling, 326
10.5. Stratified Sampling (STS), 327
10.5.1. Estimation of Number of Sampling Units, 330
10.5.2. Sample Efficiency, 332
CONTENTS xi
10.6. Cluster Sampling, 334
10.7. Multistage Sampling, 338
10.8. Sampling with Covariates, 343
10.8.1. Regression Sampling, 344
10.8.2. Double Sampling, 349
10.9. List Sampling, 353
10.10. 3P Sampling, 357
11 Inventory of standing trees Using sampling with
Varying Probability 361
11.1. Horizontal Point Sampling (HPS), 362
11.1.1. Angle Gauges for HPS, 362
11.1.2. Photographic Methods, 367
11.1.3. Sample Size, 368
11.1.4. Choosing a Suitable Gauge Constant, 369
11.1.5. Proper Use of Gauges, 371
11.1.6. Checking Questionable Trees, 372
11.1.7. Slope Correction, 374
11.1.8. Leaning and Hidden Trees, 374
11.1.9. Volume Estimation, 375
11.1.10. Special‐Purpose Modifications of HPS, 376
11.2. Subsampling in HPS, 377
11.2.1. Big BAF Sampling, 377
11.2.2. Point 3P Sampling, 382
11.3. Other Variable Probability Sampling Techniques, 386
11.3.1. Horizontal Line Sampling (HLS), 386
11.3.2. Vertical Point and Line Sampling, 389
11.3.3. Critical Height Sampling, 391
12 Inventory of Downed Dead Material Using sampling with 
Varying Probability 393
12.1. Fixed‐Area Plots, 394
12.2. Line Intersect Sampling, 398
12.2.1. Assumptions of Line Intersect Sampling, 399
12.2.2. Estimating Downed Wood Parameters, 401
12.2.3. Choosing a Line Length and Design, 404
12.2.4. Adaptation for Fine Fuels, 406
12.3. Angle Gauge Methods, 406
12.3.1. Transect Relascope Sampling, 406
12.3.2. Point Relascope Sampling, 410
12.3.3. Gauge Construction and Choice of Angle, 411
12.3.4. Estimating Downed Wood Parameters, 413
12.3.5. Practical Aspects, 413
12.4. Perpendicular Distance Sampling (PDS), 414
12.4.1. PDS for Volume, 415
12.4.2. Distance‐Limited PDS, 419
12.4.3. PDS for Other Attributes, 420