Table Of Content...
111
Foodborne pathogens
Hazards, risk analysis and control
Second edition
Edited by
Clive de W. Blackburn and Peter J. McClure
CRC Press
Boca Raton Boston New York Washington, DC
WOODHEAD
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Contents
Contributor contact details ................................................................. xvii
Part I Risk assessment and management in the food chain
1 Introduction ............................................................................... 3
C . de W. Blackburn and P. J . McClure. Unilever, UK
1.1 Trends in foodborne disease ............................................. 3
1.2 Incidence of foodborne disease ........................................ 4
1.3 Foodborne disease surveillance. ....................................... 5
1.4 Emerging foodborne disease and changing patterns in
epidemiology .................................................................... 7
1.5 Control of foodborne disease ........................................... 11
1.6 Rationale for this book ..................................................... 13
1.7 References ........................................................................ 14
2 Detecting pathogens in food ..................................................... 17
R . Betts. Campden BRI. UK. and C . de W. Blackburn.
Unilever, UK
2.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 17
2.2 Quality control and quality assurance .............................. 18
2.3 Role of microbiology methods ......................................... 19
2.4 Applying microbiological testing ..................................... 26
2.5 Sampling ........................................................................... 27
2.6 Conventional microbiological techniques ........................ 28
2.7 Rapid and automated methods ......................................... 31
2.8 Future trends ..................................................................... 55
2.9 References and further reading ........................................ 56
vi Contents
3 Modeling the growth. survival and death of
microbial pathogens in foods .................................................... 66
J . D . Legan. Kraft Foods. USA. C . M . Stewart. Silliker Inc.
USA. and M . B . Cole. National Center for Food Safety and
Technology. USA
3.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 66
3.2 Approaches to modeling .................................................. 67
3.3 Kinetic growth models ..................................................... 70
3.4 Growth boundary models ................................................. 83
3.5 Kinetic death models ....................................................... 89
3.6 Time to inactivation models ............................................. 93
3.7 Survival models ................................................................ 96
3.8 Applications of models .................................................... 97
3.9 Future trends ..................................................................... 101
3.10 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 103
3.1 1 Acknowledgements .......................................................... 105
3.12 References ........................................................................ 105
4 Risk assessment and pathogen management .......................... 113
T. Ross and i? A . McMeekin. University of Tasmania. Australia
4.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 114
4.2 Overview of microbial food safety risk assessment ........ 115
4.3 Approaches to microbial food safety risk assessment ..... 122
4.4 Industry use of microbial food safety risk assessment .... 135
4.5 Future trends ..................................................................... 144
4.6 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 146
4.7 References ........................................................................ 147
5 Emerging foodborne pathogens and the food industry ......... 154
L . Smoot. Nestle' USA. USA. and J.L . Cordier, Nestle' Nutrition.
Switzerland
5 .I Introduction ...................................................................... 154
5.2 Factors contributing to the emergence of new pathogens 156
5.3 How to identify emerging pathogens: sources of
information ....................................................................... 161
5.4 Management options ........................................................ 167
5.5 Future trends ..................................................................... 172
5.6 References ........................................................................ 172
6 Pathogen control in primary production: meat, dairy and
eggs .......................................................................................... 182
G . DUB.A shtown Food Research Centre. Teagasc. Ireland
6.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 182
6.2 Identifying and assessing hazards and risks ................... 183
6.3 Managing and controlling hazards and risks with
ruminant animals ............................................................. 188
Contents vii
6.4 Managing and controlling hazards and risks with pigs ... 192
6.5 Managing and controlling hazards and risks with
poultry .............................................................................. 193
6.6 Managing and controlling hazards and risks with eggs .. 195
6.7 Future strategies and regulatory issues ............................ 196
6.8 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 198
6.9 References ........................................................................ 199
7 Pathogen control in primary production: crop foods ............ 205
R . Early. Harper Adams University College. UK
7.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 205
7.2 Quality and safety in the food chain ............................... 206
7.3 Crops as foodstuffs for humans ...................................... 210
7.4 Microbial food safety and food crops .............................. 213
7.5 Fungal pathogens and mycotoxins ................................... 219
7.6 Bacterial pathogens ......................................................... 224
7.7 Viral and parasitic pathogens ........................................... 227
7.8 Food safety management in crop production .................. 228
7.9 Good agricultural practice (GAP) .................................... 230
7.10 GAP and food safety management ................................. 235
7.1 1 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system
(HACCP) .......................................................................... 237
7.12 Developing a food safety management system ............... 241
7.13 Implementing and maintaining HACCP systems ............ 260
7.14 Farm assurance ................................................................ 261
7.15 Future trends ..................................................................... 269
7.16 Conclusions ...................................................................... 271
7.17 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 271
7.18 References ........................................................................ 273
8 Pathogen control in primary production: fisheries and
aquaculture ................................................................................ 280
B . Fonnesbech Vogel. Technical University of Denmark.
Denmark
8.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 280
8.2 Identifying and assessing hazards and risk ...................... 281
8.3 Managing and controlling hazards and risk ..................... 295
8.4 Future trends ..................................................................... 298
8.5 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 299
8.6 References ........................................................................ 300
9 Pathogen control in primary production: bivalve shellfish ... 306
W. J . Dork. Marine Institute. Ireland
9.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 306
9.2 Identifying and assessing hazards and risk ...................... 307
9.3 Managing and controlling hazards and risks .................. 311
viii Contents
9.4 Future trends ..................................................................... 316
9.5 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 318
9.6 References ........................................................................ 318
10 Hygienic plant design ................................................................ 322
J . Holah. Campden BRI. UK
10.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 322
10.2 Barrier 1: the factory site ................................................. 326
10.3 Barrier 2: the factory building ......................................... 328
10.4 Barrier 3: high risk production area ................................. 336
10.5 Barrier 4: product enclosure ............................................. 355
10.6 The design of smaller manufacturing and catering
operations ......................................................................... 356
10.7 Future trends ..................................................................... 358
10.8 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 359
10.9 References ........................................................................ 359
11 Hygienic equipment design ....................................................... 362
A . Hasting. Tony Hasting Consulting. UK
11. 1 Introduction ...................................................................... 362
1 1.2 Regulatory requirements .................................................. 364
11.3 Hygienic design principles ............................................... 365
11.4 Hygienic design requirements .......................................... 366
11.5 Hygienic design of some major equipment items ............ 373
11.6 Conclusions ...................................................................... 386
11.7 Future trends ..................................................................... 387
11.8 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 388
11.9 References ........................................................................ 389
12 Sanitation ................................................................................... 391
J . Holah. Campden BRI, UK
12.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 391
12.2 Sanitation principles ......................................................... 392
12.3 Sanitation chemicals ......................................................... 397
12.4 Sanitation methodology. ................................................... 406
12.5 Sanitation procedure ......................................................... 415
12.6 Evaluation of sanitation effectiveness ............................. 418
12.7 Future trends ..................................................................... 423
12.8 Sources of further information and advice ..................... 424
12.9 References ........................................................................ 425
13 Safe process design and operation ........................................... 431
M . Brown. mhb Consulting. UK
13.1 Introduction: product and process design ........................ 431
13.2 Principles of process design ............................................ 434
13.3 Designing and validating product and process
designs ............................................................................. 441
Contents ix
13.4 Modelling and product/process design ........................... 446
13.5 Safety management tools: Good Manufacturing Practice
(GMP). Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system
(HACCP) and risk assessment ........................................ 448
13.6 Process flow and equipment ........................................... 452
13.7 Manufacturing areas ........................................................ 454
13.8 Processing and handling products ................................... 464
13.9 Control systems ............................................................... 470
13.10 Conclusions ..................................................................... 475
13.1 1 Future trends ..................................................................... 476
13.12 References and further reading ....................................... 476
14 The effective implementation of HACCP systems in food
processing ................................................................................... 481
A . Muyes. Unilever Colworth. UK and S . Mortimore.
Land O’Lakes Inc. USA
14.1 Introduction ..................................................................... 481
14.2 Hazard Analysis Critical Control Point system
(HACCP) methodology and implementation .................. 483
14.3 Motivation ....................................................................... 484
14.4 The knowledge required for HACCP .............................. 488
14.5 Initial training and preparation ....................................... 490
14.6 Building knowledge and expertise .................................. 495
14.7 Resources and planning .................................................. 498
14.8 Pre-requisite programmes ............................................... 500
14.9 HACCP teams ................................................................. 501
14.10 Hazard analysis ............................................................... 503
14.11 HACCP implementation .................................................. 504
14.12 Maintenance .................................................................... 506
14.13 HACCP and public health goals ...................................... 508
14.14 Future trends ................................................................... 511
14.15 Conclusions ...................................................................... 514
14. I6 References ....................................................................... 514
15 Good practice for food handlers and consumers ................... 518
C . GrifSlth and E . Redmond. University of Wales Institute
CardifJ; UK
15.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 518
15.2 Food-handling practices and food safety management
systems ............................................................................. 525
15.3 Understanding food handlers’ behaviour ......................... 529
15.4 Helping people to change behaviour - education and
training ............................................................................. 535
15.5 Future trends ..................................................................... 540
15.6 References ....................................................................... 540
x Contents
Part I1 Bacterial hazards
16 Preservation principles and new technologies ........................ 547
G . Gould. University of Leeds. UK
16.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 547
16.2 Basis of food preservation. safety and the extension
of shelf life ....................................................................... 548
16.3 Major food preservation and safety technologies ............ 549
16.4 New and emerging technologies ...................................... 556
16.5 Natural antimicrobial systems .......................................... 564
16.6 Conclusions ...................................................................... 569
16.7 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 570
16.8 References ....................................................................... 570
17 Pathogenic Escherichia coli ...................................................... 581
C . Bell. Independent Consultant Microbiologist. UK. and
A . Kyriakides. Sainsbury s Supermarkets Ltd. UK
17.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 581
17.2 Characteristics of Escherichia coli .................................. 582
17.3 Risk factors for Escherichia coli 0157 ............................ 590
17.4 Detecting Escherichia coli ............................................... 600
17.5 Control of pathogenic Escherichia coli in foods ............. 601
17.6 Raw material control ........................................................ 602
17.7 Control in processing ....................................................... 607
17.8 Final product control ........................................................ 614
17.9 Future trends ..................................................................... 616
17.10 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 616
17.1 1 References ........................................................................ 617
18 Salmonella .................................................................................. 627
C . Bell. Independent Consultant Microbiologist. UK. and
A . Kyriakides. Sainsbury 's Supermarkets Ltd. UK
18.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 627
18.2 Characteristics of Salmonella ........................................... 628
18.3 Risk factors for Salmonella .............................................. 636
18.4 Detecting Salmonella ....................................................... 647
18.5 Control of Salmonella in foods ........................................ 649
18.6 Raw material control ........................................................ 650
18.7 Control in processing ....................................................... 658
18.8 Final product control ........................................................ 663
18.9 General considerations ..................................................... 663
18.10 Future trends ..................................................................... 664
18.1 1 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 665
18.12 References ........................................................................ 666
Contents xi
19 Listeria monocytogenes .............................................................. 675
C . Bell. Independent Consultant Microbiologist. UK. and
A . Kyriakides. Sainsbuiy S Supermarkets Ltd. UK
19.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 675
19.2 Characteristics of Listeria monocytogenes ....................... 676
19.3 Risk factors for Listeria monocytogenes ........................ 685
19.4 Detecting Listeria monocytogenes ................................... 694
19.5 Control of Listeria monocytogenes in foods .................... 696
19.6 Raw material control ........................................................ 696
19.7 Control in processing ....................................................... 699
19.8 Final product control ........................................................ 704
19.9 Future trends ..................................................................... 709
19.10 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 709
19.11 References ........................................................................ 710
20 Campylobacter and Arcobacter .................................................. 718
C . de W. Blackburn and P. J . McClure. Unilever, UK
20.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 718
20.2 General characteristics of Campylobacter and
Arcobacter species ........................................................... 720
20.3 Nature of Campylobacter and Arcobacter infections ...... 721
20.4 Growth and survival characteristics of Campylobacter
and Arcobacter ................................................................. 723
20.5 Risk factors for Campylobacter ....................................... 727
20.6 Risk factors for Arcobacter .............................................. 734
20.7 Methods for Campylobacter ............................................. 736
20.8 Methods for Arcobacter ................................................... 741
20.9 Control procedures for Campylobacter ............................ 743
20.10 Control procedures for Arcobacter .................................. 749
20.1 1 Future trends ..................................................................... 750
20.12 Sources of further information ......................................... 752
20.13 References ........................................................................ 752
21 Yersinia, Shigella, Vibrio, Aeromonas, Pbsiomonas,
Cronobacter, Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter .......... 763
S . Forsythe. Nottingham Trent University. UK. J . Sutherland
.
and A Varnam (deceased). University of North London. UK
21.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 763
21.2 Characteristics of the genus Yersinia ............................... 764
21.3 Characteristics of the genus Shigella ............................... 772
21.4 Characteristics of the genus Vibrio .................................. 777
21.5 Characteristics of the genera Aeromonas and
Plesiomonas ...................................................................... 785
21.6 Characteristics of the genera Cronobacter ....................... 791
2 1.7 Enterobacter, Klebsiella, Pantoea and Citrobacter
species .............................................................................. 795
xii Contents
21.8 Acknowledgement ............................................................ 796
21.9 References ........................................................................ 796
22 Staphylococcus aureus and other pathogenic Gram-positive
cocci .......................................................................................... 802
M . Adams. University of Surrey. UK
22.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 802
22.2 Staphylococcus aureus and other enterotoxigenic
staphylococci .................................................................... 803
22.3 Other Gram-positive cocci ............................................... 812
22.4 Future trends ..................................................................... 814
22.5 Further reading ................................................................. 814
22.6 References ........................................................................ 814
23 Pathogenic Clostridium species ................................................. 820
P. A . Gibbs, Leatherhead Food International, UK and
Universidade Catdlica Portuguesa, Portugal
23.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 820
23.2 Neurotoxic Clostridium species; Clostridium botulinum,
. .
general characterlstlcs ...................................................... 822
23.3 Other food-poisoning clostridia; Clostridium
perfringens, general characteristics .................................. 830
23.4 Other food poisoning clostridia; Clostridium dificile,
. .
general characterlstlcs ...................................................... 835
23.5 Future trends ................................................................... 838
23.6 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 838
23.7 References ........................................................................ 839
24 Pathogenic Bacillus species ....................................................... 844
C . de W. Blackburn and P. J . McClure, Unilever, UK
24.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 844
24.2 General characteristics of pathogenic Bacillus species .... 845
24.3 Nature of Bacillus food poisoning ................................... 851
24.4 Growth and survival characteristics ................................. 855
24.5 Other Bacillus species ...................................................... 859
24.6 Risk factors ...................................................................... 862
24.7 Methods of detection and enumeration ............................ 868
24.8 Control procedures ........................................................... 870
24.9 Future trends ..................................................................... 876
24.10 Sources of further information and advice ...................... 877
24.1 1 Acknowledgements .......................................................... 878
24.12 References ........................................................................ 878
Part I11 Other agents of foodborne disease
25 Hepatitis viruses and emerging viruses ................................... 891
K . Mattison. S. Bidawid and J . Farber, Health Canada. Canada
25.1 Introduction ...................................................................... 891
