Table Of ContentFood Waste to Valuable Resources
Applications and Management
Food Waste to Valuable
Resources
Applications and Management
Edited by
J. Rajesh Banu
Department of Life Sciences, Central University of Tamil Nadu, Neelakudy, India
Gopalakrishnan Kumar
Institute of Chemistry, Bioscience and Environmental Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology,
University of Stavanger, Stavanger, Norway; and Specially Appointed School of Civil and
Environmental Engineering, Yonsei University, Seoul, South Korea
M. Gunasekaran
Department of Physics, Anna University Regional Campus, Tirunelveli, India
S. Kavitha
Department of Civil Engineering, Anna University Regional Campus, Tirunelveli, Tamil Nadu, India
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Contents
Listofcontributors xiii 2.3.5 Micronutrients 19
Authorbiographies xv 2.3.6 Foaming 20
2.4 Processconfiguration 20
1. Introduction: sources and
2.4.1 Single-stagedigestion 20
characterization of food waste and 2.4.2 Two-stagedigestion 21
food industry wastes 1 2.4.3 Multistagedigestion 21
2.4.4 Codigestion 22
S.Kavitha,R.YukeshKannah,Gopalakrishnan 2.5 Reactorconfiguration 22
Kumar,M.GunasekaranandJ.RajeshBanu 2.6 Hydrogenproduction:darkfermentation 22
1.1 Foodwasteandfoodloss 1 2.6.1 Biohydrogenproductionfromfood
1.2 Foodsupplychainwastecharacterization 2 waste 23
1.3 Sourcesandoriginsoffoodwaste 3 2.6.2 Biohydrogenproductionfromfood
1.4 Foodwastegeneration 4 industrywaste 24
2.7 Factorsaffectingbiohydrogenproduction 24
1.5 Foodwastequantification 6
1.6 Typesoffoodwasteandfoodprocessing 2.7.1 Components/compositionoffood
wastes 6 waste 24
1.7 Foodwastehierarchy 7 2.7.2 Pretreatments 25
1.8 Managementandvalorizationoffood 2.7.3 Volatilefattyacids 26
2.8 Biohythaneproductionfromfoodwaste 26
waste 7
2.8.1 Processdescription 27
1.8.1 Animalfeed 8
2.9 Enhancementstrategiesofbiohythane
1.8.2 Landfill 8
production 28
1.8.3 Bioenergyandbiofuelconversion
2.10 Applicationsofbiohythane 28
approaches 9
2.11 Challengesinthecommercializationof
1.8.4 Composting 10
biofuelfromfoodwaste 29
1.8.5 Value-addedproductsrecovery 11
2.12 Futureperspectives 29
1.9 Conclusion 11
2.13 Conclusion 32
References 11
References 32
2. Valorization of food waste for biogas,
3. Valorization of food waste for
biohydrogen, and biohythane
bioethanol and biobutanol
generation 15
production 39
T.M.MohamedUsman,S.Kavitha,J.RajeshBanu
R.YukeshKannah,P.Sivashanmugham,S.Kavitha
andS.Kaliappan
andJ.RajeshBanu
2.1 Introduction 15
3.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Anaerobicdigestionoffoodwaste 15
3.2 Bioalcoholproductionfromfoodwaste 40
2.2.1 Pretreatmentsemployed 17
2.3 Factorsaffectinganaerobicdigestionof 3.2.1 Bioethanol 40
foodwaste 18 3.2.2 Biobutanol 40
3.2.3 Comparisonofbioalcohol
2.3.1 pH 18
propertiesandtheirapplications 40
2.3.2 Temperature 18
3.3 Bioalcoholproductionprocesses 41
2.3.3 Hydraulicretentiontime 19
3.3.1 Upstreamprocess 41
2.3.4 Organicloadingrate 19
v
vi Contents
3.3.2 Midstreamprocess 52 5.3 Scalabilityofthermochemicalconversionof
3.3.3 Downstreamprocess 58 foodwaste 110
3.4 Variousbioalcoholfermentationmethods 61 5.3.1 Incineration 110
3.4.1 Separatehydrolysisandfermentation 61 5.3.2 Combustion/cofiring 111
3.4.2 Simultaneoussaccharificationand 5.3.3 Gasification 111
fermentation 62 5.3.4 Pyrolysis 111
3.4.3 Simultaneoussaccharificationand 5.3.5 Hydrothermalcarbonization 112
cofermentation 66 5.4 Concludingremarks,challenges,and
3.4.4 Consolidatedbioprocessing 66 futureprospects 113
3.5 Otherstrategiestoincreasethebioalcohol References 114
yield 67 Furtherreading 118
3.6 Conclusion 67
References 67 6. Production of organic acids and
enzymes/biocatalysts from food
4. Valorization of food waste for waste 119
biodiesel production 75
J.Merrylin,R.YukeshKannah,J.RajeshBanuand
M.DineshKumar,S.KavithaandJ.RajeshBanu IckTaeYeom
4.1 Introduction 75 6.1 Introduction 119
4.2 Variousfoodwastepretreatmentsfor 6.2 Productionoforganicacidfromfood
biodieselproduction 75 waste 119
4.2.1 Physicalpretreatment 76 6.2.1 Citricacid 119
4.2.2 Chemicalpretreatment 76 6.2.2 2,3-Butanediol 121
4.2.3 Mechanicalpretreatment 78 6.2.3 Succinicacid 121
4.2.4 Biologicalpretreatment 78 6.2.4 3-Hydroxypropionicacid 122
4.2.5 Combinedpretreatment 78 6.2.5 1,3-Propanediol 123
4.3 Lipidstobiodieselconversion 78
6.2.6 Lacticacid 123
4.4 Transesterificationprocess 79
6.2.7 Volatilefattyacids 125
4.4.1 Acid-catalyzedtransesterification 79 6.3 Productionofenzymes 126
4.4.2 Alkaline-catalyzedtransesterification 81 6.4 Extractionandpurification 128
4.4.3 Enzyme-catalyzedtransesterification 83 6.4.1 Dialysis 128
4.5 Reactorsinvolvedinbiodieselproduction 87
6.4.2 Microwave-assistedextraction 129
4.6 Scalabilityofbiodieselproduction 91
6.4.3 Ultrasonication-assistedextraction 132
4.7 Futureprospectsandconclusion 91
6.4.4 Supercriticalfluidextraction 132
References 92
6.4.5 Enzymepurificationby
Furtherreading 96
chromatography 133
6.5 Downstreamprocessing 133
5. Thermochemical conversion of food 6.6 Recovery 134
waste for bioenergy generation 97 6.7 Conclusion 134
References 134
R.UmaRani,J.RajeshBanu,DanielC.W.Tsang
andChyi-HowLay 7. Production of biopolymers and
5.1 Introduction 97 feed protein from food wastes 143
5.2 Thermochemicalroutesforbioenergy
generation 97 J.Merrylin,Preethi,GaneshDattatrayaSarataleand
J.RajeshBanu
5.2.1 Incineration 97
5.2.2 Combustion 99 7.1 Introduction 143
5.2.3 Cofiring 100 7.2 Foodwasteasavaluableresource 143
5.2.4 Cocombustion 102 7.2.1 Biopolymers 144
5.2.5 Pyrolysis 103 7.2.2 Single-celloil 146
5.2.6 Gasification 104 7.2.3 Baker’syeast 146
5.2.7 Hydrothermalcarbonization 108 7.2.4 Single-cellprotein 147
7.2.5 Polysaccharides 149
Contents vii
7.3 Reactorsusedfortheproductionof 9.4 Fermentationmethods 194
biopolymersandfeedproteins 152 9.5 Variousextractiontechniquesfor
7.4 Economicaspectsandcommercialization nutraceuticalsrecovery 194
ofbiopolymerandproteinfeed 9.5.1 Solventextractiontechnique 194
production 156 9.5.2 Microwave-assistedextraction 197
7.5 Conclusion 157 9.5.3 Enzyme-assistedextraction 198
References 157 9.5.4 Supercriticalfluidextraction 198
Furtherreading 161 9.5.5 Subcriticalwaterextraction 199
9.5.6 Ultrasound-assistedextraction 199
8. Production of fine chemicals from
9.5.7 Pulsedelectricfield 200
food wastes 163 9.5.8 Highhydrostaticpressureextraction 201
9.6 Potentialapplicationsoffood
V.GodvinSharmila,S.Kavitha,Parthiba waste-derivednutraceuticalsinthefood,
KarthikeyanObulisamyandJ.RajeshBanu pharmaceuticals,andcosmeceuticals
industries 202
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Foodwasteasavaluablesourceof 9.6.1 Useasfoodadditives 202
bioactivechemicals 163 9.6.2 Useasnutraceuticals 202
9.6.3 Useascosmeceuticals 203
8.2.1 Aromaticcompounds 163
9.7 Challengesandfutureprospects 203
8.2.2 Pigments 172
9.8 Conclusion 203
8.2.3 Antibiotics 173
References 204
8.2.4 Essentialoils 174
8.3 Bioreactorsusedforfinechemical
10. Enzymes/biocatalysts and bioreactors
production 175
8.4 Variousmethodsofextractionand for valorization of food wastes 211
purificationofchemicals 176
U.Ushani,A.R.Sumayya,G.Archana,J.Rajesh
8.4.1 Microwave-assistedextraction 176
BanuandJinjinDai
8.4.2 Ionicliquidextractiontechniques 177
8.4.3 Ultrasound-assistedextraction 178 10.1 Introduction 211
8.4.4 High-voltageelectricdischarge 178 10.2 Enzymaticvalorizationoffoodwastefor
8.4.5 Pulsedelectricfieldextraction 178 fermentativepolyhydroxybutyrate
8.4.6 Supercriticalfluidextraction 179 production 211
8.5 Economicconsideration 180 10.2.1 Mechanismof
8.6 Scaleupandcommercialization 180 polyhydroxybutyratesynthesis 214
8.7 Applications,limitations,andchallenges 10.2.2 Productionof
duringchemicalrecovery 181 polyhydroxybutyrate 214
8.8 Futureperspectivesandconclusions 181 10.3 Enzymaticvalorizationoffoodwastefor
References 183 biodieselproduction 215
Furtherreading 188 10.3.1 Mechanismofbiodieselsynthesis 215
10.3.2 Productionofbiodiesel 215
9. Specialty chemicals and nutraceuticals 10.4 Enzymaticvalorizationoffoodwastefor
production from food industry bioethanolproduction 216
wastes 189 10.4.1 Mechanismofbioethanol
synthesis 216
T.PoornimaDevi,S.Kavitha,R.YukeshKannah, 10.4.2 Productionofbioethanol 216
M.RajkumarandJ.RajeshBanu 10.5 Enzymesinvolved,theirroles,and
applications 217
9.1 Introduction 189
9.2 Bioactivecompounds 189 10.5.1 Fermentationoffoodwaste 218
10.5.2 Typesoffermenter 218
9.2.1 Phenoliccompoundsfromfood
10.5.3 Scalingupofthefermentation
waste 190
process 221
9.2.2 Carotenoids 192
10.5.4 Applicationofenzymes 221
9.2.3 Bioactivepeptides 192
10.6 Immobilizedbiocatalystsandtheir
9.2.4 Dietaryfiber 193
applicationsinfoodwastevalorization 222
9.3 Biosurfactants 193
viii Contents
10.6.1 Carbohydrates 223 11.8 Currentscenariooffoodwaste
10.6.2 Proteins 223 composting 245
10.6.3 Lipids 223 11.8.1 Developedcountries 245
10.6.4 Organicacids 224 11.8.2 Developingcountries 246
10.6.5 Biofuel 224 11.9 Sustainablecompostandits
10.6.6 Bioreactorswithimmobilized applicationintheglobalmarket 246
cells/enzymes 224 11.10 Conclusion 246
10.6.7 Kineticaspectsofimmobilized References 246
cellsorenzymes 227
10.7 Conclusion 228 12. Bioenergy recovery from food
References 228 processing wastewater—Microbial
Furtherreading 232 fuel cell 251
11. Aerobic biodegradation of food C.Subha,M.DineshKumar,R.YukeshKannah,
wastes 235 S.Kavitha,M.Gunasekaranand
J.RajeshBanu
S.Gopikumar,R.Tharanyalakshmi,R.Yukesh
12.1 Introduction 251
Kannah,AmmaiyappanSelvamandJ.RajeshBanu
12.2 Foodprocessingindustriesandtheir
11.1 Introduction 235 effluentcharacteristics 252
11.2 Aerobicdigestionoffoodwasteandtheir
12.2.1 Dairyindustry 252
types 236
12.2.2 Beverageindustry 252
11.3 Rolesofmicrobesincomposting 236
12.2.3 Cassavamillprocessing 252
11.4 Fourphasesofthecompostprocess 240
12.2.4 Potatoprocessingwastewater 253
11.4.1 Mesophilicphase 240 12.2.5 Meatprocessingwastewater 253
11.4.2 Thermophilicphase 241 12.2.6 Seafoodprocessingwastewater 253
11.4.3 Coolingphase 241 12.2.7 Cerealprocessing 254
11.4.4 Remedialphase 241 12.2.8 Cheesewheyprocessing 254
11.5 Typesofcomposting 241 12.3 Generalcomponentsofmicrobialfuel
11.5.1 Windrow 242 cells 254
11.5.2 Staticpile 242 12.3.1 Anode 254
11.5.3 In-vessel 242 12.3.2 Cathodes 256
11.5.4 Vermicomposting 242 12.3.3 Membraneseparator 257
11.5.5 Gorecoversystem 242 12.4 Variousconfigurationsofmicrobialfuel
11.6 Factorsaffectingcompostingoffood cells 258
waste 243
12.4.1 Dualchamber 259
11.6.1 Temperature 243 12.4.2 Singlechambered 260
11.6.2 pH 243 12.4.3 Stackedmicrobialfuelcell 261
11.6.3 Aeration 243 12.4.4 Membraneless 262
11.6.4 Porosity 243 12.5 Reactordesignandperformance 262
11.6.5 C:Nratio 244 12.6 Anodicbiofilm 262
11.6.6 Moisture 244 12.6.1 Factorsinfluencingbiofilm
11.6.7 Particlesize 244 formationandperformance 266
11.6.8 Feedstock 244 12.7 Energyrecoveryfromfoodwaste
11.6.9 Nutrientbalance(microand usingmicrobialelectrolysiscell 267
macro) 244 12.8 Microbialfuelcellcoupledwith
11.6.10 Oxygenuptake 244 anaerobicdigestionoffoodwaste 267
11.6.11 Microbialgrowth 244 12.9 Currentstatusofpilotmicrobialfuel
11.6.12 Odorandcolor 245 cell 270
11.7 Advantagesanddisadvantagesof 12.10 Conclusionsandfuturedirections 270
composting 245 References 271
11.7.1 Advantages 245 FurtherReading 274
11.7.2 Disadvantages 245
Contents ix
13. Integrated biorefineries of food 14. State of the art of food waste
waste 275 management in various countries 299
G.Ginni,S.AdishKumar,T.M.MohamedUsman, A.VimalaEbenezer,M.DineshKumar,S.Kavitha,
PeterPakonyiandJ.RajeshBanu DoKhacUanandJ.RajeshBanu
13.1 Introduction 275 14.1 Introduction 299
13.2 Foodwasteintegratedbiorefineries:an 14.2 Climatechangeandeconomicimpact 300
overview 275 14.3 Currentscenarioanddevelopmentof
13.3 Integratedtwo-stageprocesses 276 foodwastemanagementinvarious
13.3.1 Methane(cid:1)lacticacid countries 300
production 276 14.3.1 Developedcountries 300
13.3.2 Hydrogen(cid:1)methane 14.3.2 Developingcountries 301
production 279 14.3.3 Underdevelopedcountries 302
13.3.3 Ethanol(cid:1)methane 14.4 Treatmentstrategiesandproduct
production 279 recovery 302
13.3.4 Biolipid(cid:1)methane 14.4.1 Animalfeed 303
production 281 14.4.2 Composting 304
13.3.5 Methane(cid:1)biofertilizer 282 14.4.3 Anaerobicdigestion 305
13.3.6 Volatilefattyacids(cid:1)PHA 282 14.4.4 Fermentation 308
13.3.7 Volatilefattyacids(cid:1)bioenergy 283 14.4.5 Physicochemicalmethods 309
13.4 Liquefiedfoodwasteforbiomass 14.4.6 Landfilling 311
cultivationandmultiproductrecovery 283 14.5 Valorizationoffoodwastearoundthe
13.4.1 Cultivationofmicroalgae: globe 311
biodiesel 283 14.6 Legislationinvariouscountries 314
13.4.2 Cultivationofmicroalgae:value- 14.6.1 UnitedStates 314
addedproductsrecovery 283 14.6.2 EuropeanUnion 314
13.4.3 Cultivationofyeast:biodiesel, 14.6.3 Japan 314
biogasrecovery,andbiofertilizer 14.6.4 SouthKorea 314
production 284 14.6.5 France 315
13.5 Electrofermentationprocess:multiple 14.6.6 Italy 315
value-addedproductsrecovery 284 14.6.7 Malaysia 315
13.5.1 Bioethanolfermentation: 14.6.8 Brazil 315
microbialelectrolysiscell 14.6.9 India 315
system 284 14.7 Technicalchallenges,emergingtrends,
13.5.2 Hydrogenfermentation: andconclusions 315
microbialelectrolysiscell References 319
system 285 Furtherreading 323
13.6 Integratedbiorefineriesofdifferent
foodwastes 285 15. Techno-economic analysis and
13.6.1 Plant-derivedfoodwaste(fruit environmental aspects of food waste
andvegetablewaste) 285 management 325
13.6.2 Foodprocessingindustrial
waste 289 MohitSinghRana,ShashiBhushan,
13.7 Integratedbiorefineriesinvarious SanjeevKumarPrajapati,PreethiandS.Kavitha
sectors 291
15.1 Introduction 325
13.8 Integratedbiorefineries:
15.2 Technicalchallengesinfoodwaste
techno-economicanalysis 292
management 326
13.9 Integratedbiorefineries:policiesand
15.3 Commercialscale-upoffoodwaste
regulations 292
valorizationtechnology 328
13.10 Conclusions:remarksandfuture
15.4 Costestimationofdifferentfoodwaste
perspectives 293
valorizationtechniques 330
References 293
15.4.1 Transesterification 330
FurtherReading 298
15.4.2 Darkfermentation 331
x Contents
17. Environmental impacts and
15.4.3 Anaerobicdigestion 332
15.4.4 Solid-statefermentation 332 sustainability assessment of food loss
15.5 Cost-competitivefoodwastebiorefinery and waste valorization: value chain
development 332 analysis of food consumption 359
15.6 Techno-economicanalysisofafood
wastebiorefinery 333 Preethi,S.Kavitha,J.RajeshBanu,P.Arulazhagan
15.6.1 Techno-economicanalysis andM.Gunasekaran
framework 334 17.1 Introduction 359
15.6.2 Techno-economicanalysis 17.2 Lifecycleanalysis(LCA)offoodwaste:an
methodology 334 overview 359
15.7 Casestudiesonfoodwaste
17.2.1 LCAmethodologiesor
biorefineries 336
approaches 360
15.7.1 Integratedmangobiorefineryinan 17.3 LCAanalysisofvariousbiologicalfood
Indiancontext 336 wastevalorizationprocesses 363
15.7.2 Foodwastebiorefineryina
17.3.1 Anaerobicdigestion:biogas
Europeancontext 337
recovery 363
15.7.3 Biofuelproductionfromfood
17.3.2 Fermentationtechnologies:
waste 338
bioethanolrecovery 364
15.8 Conclusion 338
17.3.3 Transesterification:biodiesel
References 338
production 364
Furtherreading 342
17.3.4 Composting:compostand
fertilizerrecovery 368
16. Problems and issues of food
17.4 LCAanalysisofvariousnonbiological
waste-based biorefineries 343
foodwastevalorizationprocesses 371
17.4.1 Combustionandenergy
JaskiranKaur,GiniRaniandK.N.Yogalakshmi
recovery 371
16.1 Introduction 343
17.4.2 Landfilldisposal 371
16.2 Issuesassociatedwithfoodwaste 344 17.5 Lifecyclecostingapproachesto
16.3 Valorizationoffoodwaste 345 foodwasteanditsvalorization 371
16.3.1 Techniquesusedforrecoveryof 17.5.1 Functionalunit 374
bioactivecomponentsfromfood 17.5.2 Systemboundaries 374
waste 346 17.5.3 Modelingapproachesofcost 374
16.4 Techniquesfortheconversionoffood
17.5.4 Cut-offandexternalities 374
wasteintovaluableproducts 347
17.5.5 Environmentalimpact
16.4.1 Biologicalconversion 348 assessment 375
16.4.2 Thermochemical 17.5.6 Analysisofresultsand
conversion 348 interpretation 375
16.5 Impactassessmentoffoodwaste 17.6 LCAofthefoodsupplychain 375
valorizationtechnologies 349
17.6.1 Limitedorfullfoodsupplychain
16.5.1 Issuesinrelationtovalorization stagesinLCA 375
offoodwastetocompost 349 17.6.2 FoodwastedisposalLCA 375
16.5.2 Issuesinrelationtovalorizationof 17.7 CurrenteffortsonLCA 375
foodwastetobiogas 351 17.8 LCAanalysiswithacasestudy 376
16.6 Preventivemeasurestakenduringfood 17.9 Exergeticindicatorsinthefood
wastevalorization 352 industry 376
16.7 Planningstrategiesandnewinnovative
17.9.1 Exergyanalysis 376
plansforfoodwastevalorization 352
17.9.2 Useofexergeticindicators 377
16.8 Conclusions 353
17.9.3 ConstructionofaGrassmann
References 353
diagram 378
