Food Superstition, Feeding Practices and Nutritional Anthropometry of Pregnant Women-A.N. ...

17 Pages·2012·0.76 MB·English

JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

FOOD SUPERSTITION, FEEDING PRACTICES AND NUTRITIONAL ANTHROPOMETRY OF
PREGNANT WOMEN
A.N. Maduforo and O.I.C. Nwosu
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics
Medical Service Subsector, PHCN Staff Clinic, Maitama, Abuja, Nigeria

C.I. Ndiokwelu
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, University of Nigeria Teaching Hospital, Enugu
and
P.N. Obiakor-Okeke
Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Imo State University Owerri Imo State, Nigeria
E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract
The survey assessed the food superstition, feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry of pregnant women
attending ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, Nigeria. This survey
was embarked upon to identify the superstitions held on food during pregnancy among pregnant women attending
ante-natal clinic in university of Nigeria teaching hospital Ituku/Ozalla, Enugu state, to determine their acceptance
of these superstitions and to assess their feeding practices and nutritional anthropometry. Structured and validated
questionnaires were used to obtain information on the socio-economic characteristics, food superstitions and
feeding practices of the subjects. Anthropometric indices of the subjects were also assessed using weighing scale,
height measuring rod and tape. The data was analyzed using the SPSS version17 to determine the means with their
standard deviations, frequencies, and percentages as well as drew charts. The result of the survey shows that the
mean weight and height of the subjects were 77.47 ± 12.23kg and 1.66 ± 0.06m respectively. Their mean wrist
circumference was 16.17 ± 0.99cm. Also, the mean frame size and mean expected weight were 10.30 ± 0.60 and
66.97 ± 7.91 respectively. Food superstitions were held on foods like fufu, beans, snail, cocoa drink, okro, dika nut,
etc. Conclusively, this research has revealed that 29% acknowledged that there is still an existence of food
superstition among pregnant women that attend ante-natal in UNTH Ituku/Ozalla and about 19% of them still
practice it. The feeding pattern of this 19% was being affected by these superstitions. Their nutritional status is
certainly determined by what they eat because "we are what we eat". However, about 42% had normal expected
body weight while 58% of pregnant women were malnourished. Hence, I recommend that nutrition education be
intensified in ante-natal clinics and different villages in Nigeria to help teach pregnant women on healthy food
selection and importance of nutrition before, during and after pregnancy.

Keywords: Food superstition, nutritional anthropometry, pregnant women

Introduction
Superstition is a belief or practice generally regarded as Taboo food and drink are food and beverages which
irrational and as resulting from ignorance or from fear people abstain from consuming for religious, cultural or
of the unknown. It implies a belief in unseen and hygienic reasons. Many food taboos forbid the meat of
unknown forces that can be influenced by objects and a particular animal, including mammals, rodents,
rituals. Magic or sorcery, witchcraft, and the occult in reptiles, amphibians, bony fish, and crustaceans. Some
general are often referred to as superstitions (John, taboos are specific to a particular part or excretion of an
2009). animal, while other taboos forgo the consumption of
plants, fungi, or insects (John, 2009).
In general, superstitious practices and beliefs are most
common in situations involving a high degree of risk, All communities have their own cultural (traditional)
chance, and uncertainty, and during times of personal or pattern. The cultural pattern of a group is based on
social stress or crisis, when events seem to be beyond learned behaviour, acquired partly by deliberate
human control. The question of what is or is not instruction on the part of parents, but mostly
superstitious, however, is relative. One person’s beliefs subconsciously by incidental observation of the
can be another’s superstitions. All religious beliefs and behaviour of relatives and other close members of the
practices may be considered superstition by community (Ogbeide, 1974).
unbelievers, while religious leaders often condemn
unorthodox popular practices as a superstitious parody Food taboos can be defined as rules, codified or
of true faith (John, 2009). otherwise, about which foods or combinations of foods
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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

may not be eaten and how animals are to be
slaughtered. The origins of these prohibitions and Data collection
commandments are varied. In some cases, these taboos Structured and validated questionnaire was used to
are a result of health considerations or other practical collect data. The questionnaire was designed to elicit
reasons. In others, they are a result of human symbolic information on personal, socio-economic status, food
systems. Some foods may be prohibited during certain taboos, beliefs and feeding practices of the women. The
festivals (e.g., Lent), at certain times of life (e.g., literate women were given the questionnaire to fill
pregnancy), or to certain classes of people (e.g., while the illiterate ones were interviewed from the
priests), although the food is in general permissible questionnaires and the answers recorded.
(John, 2009) During the data collection, I visited the ante-natal clinic
of UNTH Ituku/Ozalla on their ante-natal days to meet
Traditional beliefs and attitudes influence women’s with the pregnant women and randomly collect
health. Even when women have access to appropriate samples.
healthcare, they often prefer home/community based
care. Women’s overall health and nutritional status, Anthropometric measurement
pregnancy outcomes and other reproductive health Weights of the pregnant women were obtained using
problems are considered to be the major biological portable body weight measurement scale (kg). Height
causes of maternal mortality; therefore, the overall measurement was obtained using measurement tape in
nutritional status of a pregnant woman is principally centimetres (cm).
determined by the feeding practices and care facilities
available to her (Saba, 1996). Weight
The actual weight was determined with a bathroom
Statement of the problem weighing scale. The weighing scale was checked and
The problem of malnutrition among pregnant women adjusted if need be to the zero mark before the subjects
poses a great challenge to nutritionist and the health mounted the scale and their weight was recorded.
sector as well as to the government. Malnutrition of the
mother does not just affect the pregnant woman only Height
but also has a devastating effect on the foetus (unborn Heights were measured with a vertical measuring rod
child). Malnutrition has ranked as the major cause of calibrated in centimetres (cm). The subject stood erect
maternal mortality and it is a major determinant of a looking straight on a levelled surface with heels
successful pregnancy and a healthy well nourished together and toes apart, without shoes. The moving
baby. head piece of the measuring rod was lowered to rest flat
on the top of head and the reading was taken to the
According to UNICEF (2009), each year, more than nearest centimetre.
half a million women die from causes related to
pregnancy and childbirth. Nearly 4 million newborns Wrist circumference
die within 28 days of birth. Millions more suffer from The wrist circumference was measured using a cloth
disability, disease, infection and injury. The lifetime tape wrapped around the bony part of the wrist
risk of maternal death for a woman in a least developed (anatomical point) and the reading was taken to the
country is more than 300 times greater than for a nearest centimetre.
woman living in an industrialized country.
Frame size
Africa and Asia account for 95 percent of the world’s The frame size was determined using the measure
maternal deaths, with particularly high burdens in Sub- height and wrist circumference. Basically, frame size is
Saharan Africa (50 percent of the global total) and categorized into three;
South Asia (35 percent). These statistics above showed 1. Small frame: when the calculated frame size
while it is important that the major avoidable causes of value is greater than 11.0 (FS>11.0) for
maternal mortality and adverse pregnancy outcome are females
eliminated by looking into the feeding practices of 2. Medium frame: when the calculate FS
women due to their traditional belief and taboos and value is between 10.1 – 11.0 (FS = 10.1 –
also to determine its effect on their nutritional status. 11.0) for females
3. Large frame: when the calculated FS value
Methodology is less than 10.1 (FS<10.1) for females.
Study area Hence, to calculate the frame size (FS), the following
The study was carried out in University of Nigeria formula was used;
Teaching Hospital, Enugu. It is a tertiary health FS = Height (cm)
institution that offers services which include training of Wrist Circumference (cm)
medical and paramedical students, graduates and
practitioners, research and treatment and management Ideal Body Weight (IBW)
for both in-patients and out-patients. This is calculated using the height and frame size,
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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Hamwi Formula was used to determine the IBW; 45kg record data. This was determined using the Fisher’s
for the first 5feet (60inches) + 2.3kg for each inch over formula (Vaughan et al., 1989) (8) where:
5feet (medium frame). For small frame, subtract 10% of n= Z2 PQ/d2
the calculated value and for large frame add 10% of the P is the prevalence of the attribute
calculated value. Determination of q is 1-P i.e. the proportion of the population that does
not have the characteristic
Additional weight Z is the standard normal deviate for 95%
Ellie and Sharon, (2008) method for weight gain pattern confidence level (1.96)
during pregnancy was used to determine the expected • d is the precision, Total sample size was
additional weight at each stage of pregnancy. 100
Data analysis
For a normal- weight woman, weight gain pattern The data was analyzed using SPSS version 17 to
ideally follows a pattern of 3½ pounds (1.6kg) for the determine the means with their standard deviations,
first trimester (12 weeks) and 1 pound (0.45kg) per frequencies, and percentages as well as drawing of
week thereafter. charts.

Expected weight Results
At each stage of pregnancy, there is an expected weight One hundred pregnant women completed the study and
for each individual, using the ideal body weight and the result of the survey is shown in the tables and charts
additional weight for each stage of pregnancy. Hence, below.
the formula for expected weight includes;
Expected Weight = IBW + Expected additional weight
at each stage.

Sample size
The following formula was used to calculate the
required sample size
for 10% of women Figure 1: The age of the respondents
that attend antenatal
1% 1%
clinic in UNTH
using the medical

15 – 20

40%
21 – 30
31 – 40
58%
41 – 50

Figure 1 revealed that the most of the respondents are are 31 – 40 years of age (40%) while those within 15 –
within the age 21 – 30 years of age (58%) and those that 20 & 41 – 50 years of age make up 1% each.

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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Figure 2: The marital status of the respondents
98
1 1 0

Figure 2 showed that 98% of the respondents were married while 1% each is single and widow.
Figure 3: Highest educational attainment
5588
3333
66
33
INFORMAL PRIMARY SCHOOL SECONDARY TERTIARY
SCHOOL

Figure 3 revealed that 58% of the respondents attended attended primary school and 3% did not attend any
tertiary institution, 33% attended secondary school, 6% formal education.

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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Figure 4: The occupation of the respondents
0%
FARMER
22%
BUSINESS
37%
CIVIL SERVANT
SKILLED LABOUR
37%
UNEMPLOYED/HOUSE
4% WIFE

Figure 4 revealed that the respondents have varied time farmer. However, 37% of the women were
occupations and this include 37% civil servant, 22% unemployed, students of housewife.
business women, 4% skilled workers and non is a full

Figure 5: The religion of the respondents
99
1 0 0
CHRISTIAN MUSLIM TRADITIONAL OTHERS

Figure 5 showed that 99% of the respondents were Christians while only 1% was a Muslim.

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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Figure 6 :The geographical region of the respondent
95
0 0 1 1 3
NORTH EASTNORTH WEST NORTH SOUTH EASTSOUTH WEST SOUTH
CENTRAL SOUTH

Figure 6: Here, 95% of the women are from the South- geographical region to the survey site, 1% from North
Eastern part of Nigeria where the survey was carried Central, and 1% from south west.
out, 3% are from south-south which is the closest

Figure 7:Stage of pregnancy of the respondents
8%
FIRST TRIMESTER
32%
SECOND TRIMESTER
THIRD TRIMESTER
60%

Figure 7 showed that 8% of the women were in the first
trimester, 32% were in the second trimester and 60%
were in their last trimester.

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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Table 1: Existence, acceptance and practice of foods superstition by pregnant women
Parameter Frequency Percentage
Existence of food superstition
Yes
29 29
No
71 71
Those that accept the beliefs
Yes
17 17
No
10 10
Not all
2 2
No response
71 71
Those that eat all these forbidden foods when they were not pregnant
Yes
8 8
No
18 18
Not all
3 3
No response
71 71

In table 1, 29% acknowledged that food superstitions about pregnant women exist in their areas, 19% accepted and
practiced it.

Figure 8:Educational background of the women that
accepts and practices these superstitions
32%
TERTIARY
SECONDARY
68%

Figure 8 showed that 68 percent from the 19% of the attended tertiary institution, while 32 percent attended
entire sample population of the women that accepted secondary school.
and practiced the food superstitions in their community

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JORIND 11(1), June, 2013. ISSN 1596-8308. www.transcampus.org/journals; www.ajol.info/journals/jorind

Table 2: The different foods held in superstitions
Name of food/meat/drink Reason for superstition
Grass cutter Prolonged labour; Causes false labour in pregnant women
Honey Makes the baby to have soft head and spots on the skin
Snail Causes the baby to split (salivate excessively)
Pig meat (Pork) Makes the baby to breath like a pig
Banana No reason was given
Udah (Senegal Pepper -Xylopia
aethiopica) Causes early contraction and abortion of the baby
To avoid spitting; Christian; causes abortion of the baby and kidney
Alcohol dysfunction
Coffee Health hazard risk
Akpu Makes the child to be over-weight
Beans Makes the child to be over-weight
Okro Makes the baby to salivate excessively
Ogbono (Dika nut) Makes the baby to salivate excessively
Cold water The baby could be born with pneumonia
Bitter cola Causes constant convulsion in babies
Smoking cigarette It is not good for mother and baby
Donkey (Jaki) It behaves like human beings in the olden days
Snake (Python) It is forbidden
Beverages Causes the baby to be big
Malt Causes the baby to be big
Ona No reason was given

In table 2, different foods, meats and drinks that are held in superstition for various reasons were listed.

Table 3: The Percentage of Response to the Different Superstitious Foods
Name of food/meat/drink Frequency Percentage
Grass cutter 10 10
Honey 3 3
Snail 4 4
Pig meat (Pork) 1 1
Banana 1 1
Udah (Senegal Pepper -Xylopia aethiopica) 3 3
Alcohol 6 6
Coffee 1 1
Akpu 1 1
Beans 3 3
Okro 1 1
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Ogbono (Dika nut) 1 1
Cold water 1 1
Bitter cola 1 1
Smoking cigarette 1 1
Donkey (Jaki) 1 1
Snake (Python) 1 1
Beverages 1 1
Malt 1 1
Ona 1 1

has 10% of the responses. Alcohol (6%), Snail (4%),
Table 3, revealed that grass-cutter (Nchi) meat featured honey, beans and uda (3%) featured more than once in
more frequently in the response of the respondents it their responses.

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Table 4: The Feeding Pattern of the Respondents
Parameter Frequency Percentage
No of meals per day
1 2 2
2 7 7
3 63 63
> 3 28 28
How often they take snacks (eg: meat pie)
Daily 18 18
1 – 2 times a week 2 1 21
3 – 4 times a week 9 9
Rarely 52 52
Meal(s) they usually skipped
Breakfast 6 6
Lunch 2 2
Dinner 1 1
None 91 91
Total 100 100
Reasons for skipping meals
Limited fund 0 0
Fear of vomiting 2 2
Insufficient time to prepare meals 0 0
Lifestyle 6 6
Tiredness 0 0
Do not want my child to be too big 1 1
No response 91 91
How often they eat fruits and vegetables
Daily 53 53
1 – 2 times a week 12 12
3 – 4 times a week 25 25
Rarely 10 10
How often they take their routine drugs
Daily 79 79
1 – 2 times per week 9 9
3 – 4 times per week 6 6
Rarely 6 6
Those that considered they should change
their food habit
Yes 29 29
No 71 71

Table 4, showed the feeding pattern of the respondents, 53% takes fruits and vegetables daily, 9% skip meals and
6% rarely take their supplements.

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