Table Of ContentD e v e l o p m e n ts
in
G e o c h e m i s t ry
1
F L U I DS IN T HE
E A R T H 'S C R U ST
Their significance in metamorphic, tectonic and chemical transport
processes
by
W. S. F Y FE
University of Western Ontario, London, Ont, Canada
N. J. P R I CE
Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, Great Britain
A. B . T H O M P S ON
Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule, Zurich, Switzerland
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
Amsterdam - Oxford - New York 1978
ELSEVIER SCIENTIFIC PUBLISHING COMPANY
Jan van Galenstraat 335
P.O. Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands
Distributions for the United States and Canada:
ELSEVIER/NORTH-HOLLAND INC.
52 Vanderbilt Avenue
New York N.Y. 10019, U.S.A.
With 227 illustrations and 17 tables.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
Fyfe, W. S.
Fluids in the earth's crust.
(Developments, in geochemistry ; 1)
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Hydrogeology. 2. Rocks, Metamorphic.
3. Geology, Structural, k. Groundwater flow.
I. Price, Neville J., joint author. II. Thompson,
Alan Bruce, 191*7- joint author. III. Title.
IV· Series.
QE33.F86 * 552»Λ 78-8286
ISBN 0-kkk-kl636-6
ISBN 0-444-41636-6 (Vol. 1)
ISBN 0-444-41635-8 (Series)
Copyright © 1978 by Elsevier Scientific Publishing Company, Amsterdam
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, mechanical, photocopying, recording,
or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the publisher, Elsevier Scientific
Publishing Company, Jan van Galenstraat 335, Amsterdam
Printed in The Netherlands
Most of us are reluctant to consider that fluids may pour through rocks despite our
knowledge of the success of deep drilling for oil, gas or water. This scene from White
Island, New Zealand, shows the output from convection of seawater near a magma cham-
ber. The gas cloud is rich in hydrochloric acid from the hydrolysis of salt. This type of
convective cooling process must influence all rocks of the sea floor and leads to extensive
chemical changes and, at times, metal transport forming ore deposits.
(Photo — courtesy R.H. Clark)
EDITOR'S PREFACE TO THE SERIES:
Developments in Geochemistry
We are living in a period of spectacular advances in the Earth Sciences. The new global
tectonics, the recognition that we live on a planet which is convecting, is rapidly changing
our views on almost every part of geochemistry. We also live during what must be a
unique period of human history, a period where man has come to realize that the planet
Earth has limits. We are changing our geochemical environment and we are placing great
demands on Earth resources. We do not adequately understand geochemical processes on
and in the Earth and every day we become aware of important gaps in our knowledge.
At the same time as we have come to recognize the necessity for more geochemistry,
new tools for observation have become available. On all scales from the remote analysis of
planetary systems, to the detailed study of atomic domains with analytical electron mi-
croscopes, ion-probes and mass spectrometers, we can describe as never before. And the
development of the modern computer which allows us to process, store and retrieve infor-
mation, has been essential to advances.
Because of all these things, we are faced with an information explosion. To write
books becomes an increasingly frightening task. How does the author select and synthe-
size and still obtain balance? But it is just at such a time that the necessity to try such
synthesis becomes even more important for the student and research worker. It is our
hope that this series will contribute to knowledge in these developing fields of geochemi-
cal study.
Advisory Editor
W.S. FYFE
Chairman of the Department
Department of Geology, Faculty of Science
The University of Western Ontario
Biological & Geological Building
London, Ont. N6A 5B7, Canada
PREFACE
The decision to write this book arose when the three of us were associated
through Manchester University and Imperial College. At that time we were
attempting to formulate realistic experiments linking metamorphic processes
and rock mechanics. While so involved, it became apparent that while many
admirable texts of metamorphic petrology or structural geology exist, there
has been little attempt to unify. To us this seemed unnatural; rock deforma-
tion and metamorphism are in general, a unity. One need only look at any
metamorphic terrain to be impressed by the interactions between stress—strain
and chemical processes. Hence we have tried to pull together some of the
pieces of the puzzle. It is a first imperfect attempt, but we hope it may stim-
ulate others, particularly the new generation of observers of rocks, to con-
tinue and do better.
This book is intended for the advanced undergraduate and postgraduate
student. It is not a traditional text on metamorphic geology, nor is it in any
way a treatise on structural geology, though it draws heavily on both these
philosophies. Consequently, the text should prove interesting to students in
both these fields. Indeed, the content of this book forms a significant part of
the course given by one of the authors in the M.Sc. course in Structural
Geology and Rock Mechanics at Imperial College. However, it is considered
that the subject matter of this book will be of interest to mining and oil
geologists as well as pure geologists all of whom may be concerned with the
generation and migration of fluids in the crust, their influence upon struc-
tures and their collection and concentration into commercially viable reser-
voirs or their fossil trace in the form of ore bodies. And today, the urgent
global problem of nuclear waste disposal involves the knowledge and gaps in
knowledge with which we are here concerned.
W.S. FYFE, London, Ont.
N.J. PRICE, London
A.B. THOMPSON, Zürich
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
It is difficult to acknowledge fully those who directly or indirectly have
particularly influenced us either by personal contact or by their written
work. But among such people we wish to list are:
R.L. Armstrong, B. Atkinson, W. Brace, D.S. Coombs, J. Cosgrove, J. Elder,
A.J. Ellis, H.P. Eugster, R.M. Garrels, J. Gilluly, D.T. Griggs, H. Heard, H.D.
Holland, J.C. Jaeger, G. Jones, G.C. Kennedy, M. King-Hubbert, G. Mandl,
J. Phillips, J.G. Ramsay, W.W. Rubey, A.B. Ronov, E. Rutter, R. Sibson, J.B.
Thompson, F.J. Turner, J. Verhoogen, S. White, G. Wilson, Å-an Zen.
Particular thanks go to Sally Adams, Jackie Ainge, Judy Blackwell, Peter
Frey, Joan Price, Renate Ringsman, Ursi Stidwill, for helping in various
ways in the preparation of this manuscript.
PERMISSIONS
Permission to reproduce the material listed below is gratefully acknowledged.
Akademische Verlagsgesellschaft Wiesbaden (Figs. 4.3, 4.4)
American Association for the Advancement of Science (Fig. 4.23; Table 2.7)
The American Association of Petroleum Geologists (Figs. 2.8,11.29,12.9)
The American Chemical Society (Fig. 5.17)
The American Journal of Science (Figs. 2.4, 2.5, 4.3, 4.4, 4.5, 4.6, 4.8, 4.9,
4.10, 4.11, 4.12A, 4.13, 4.15B, 4.17, 4.19, 5.4, 5.5, 5.6, 5.14, 7.2,13.11)
The American Geophysical Union (Figs. 5.20, 8.12,12.12)
The Association of Mining, Metallurgy and Petroleum Engineering (Figs.
8.15,8.16,8.17)
Butterworths Scientific Publications (Figs. 8.6,10.16,10.17)
Canadian Geological Survey (Fig. 8.32)
Carnegie Institution of Washington (Figs. 5.18, 5.19)
Economic Geology (Figs. 2.6, 4.15A, 4.21, 4.22)
Freeman, Cooper & Co. (Fig. 12.3)
W.H. Freeman and Co. (Table 2.6)
The Geological Association (Fig. 11.9)
The Geological Association of America (Figs. 2.3, 9.5, 10.1, 11.30, 12.2,
13.1;Tables2.1,2.2)
The Geological Magazine (Figs. 9.4,10.18)
The Geological Society of London (Figs. 9.3, 9.11, 9.16, 11.15, 11.19,
11.20,11.24,11.25,13.2)
Geologie en Mijnbouw (Fig. 12.6)
Harper and Row Publisher Inc. (Fig. 6.10)
Holt, Rinehart and Winston (Figs. 2.9, 4.12B)
International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences (Figs. 8.20,
10.2)
John Wiley and Sons Inc. (Figs. 4.7, 6.8)
Journal of Petroleum Technology (Fig. 10.2)
Masson et Cie. (Figs. 5.10, 5.15)
McGraw-Hill Book Co. (Figs. 5.1, 5.2, 5.16)
National Academy of Sciences, Washington (Figs. 11.1,11.7)
W.W. Norton and Company Inc. (Figs. 2.7, 2.8; Tables 2.3, 2.4, 2.5)
Oxford University Press (Figs. 5.21,12.5)
Pergamon Press Inc. (Figs. 4.1, 4.2, 5.3, 5.7, 5.11, 5.12)
The Royal Society (Figs. 8.41, 8.42)
Science Progress, Oxford (Figs. 8.1, 9.6, 9.8)
Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists (Figs. 5.9, 5.13)
Springer-Verlag (Figs. 5.8, 6.6, 7.9)
United States Geological Survey (Tables 2.9, 2.10)
GLOSSARY
Units
The reader will find several types of units used in this book. In general, we have used
the units of the original source. To assist, some basic units and their conversion relations
are listed here.
Concentration M (molarity)
m (molality)
Í (normality)
ppb (parts per billion)
ppm (parts per million)
vol.% (per cent by volume)
wt.% (per cent by weight)
Energy 1 cal. (calorie) 4.184 J (joule)
1 erg 10"7 J
1 eV (electron volt) 1.602 - 10"19 J
Entropy 1 cal. g"1 °C"1 4,184 J kg"1 K"1
Force 1 dyn (dyne) ÉÏ"5 Í (newton)
Gas constant R 8.314 J mol"1 Ê"1
Length 1 in. (inch) 0.02452 m (meter)
1 ft. (foot) 0.3048 m
1 mile 1,609 m
Mass 1 t (ton) 106 g (gram)
Pressure 1 atm. (atmosphere) 1.013 · 105 Pa (pascal)
1 bar 105 Pa
1 lb. in."2 (pound-force per 6.89474 · 103 Pa
square inch)
Temperature °C (degree Celsius) K (kelvin)
Time 1 day 86,400 s (second)
1 a (year) 3.16 · 107 s
Viscosity 1 Ñ (poise) 10"5 Nm"2 s"1
S.I. unit prefaces
ì (micro) 10"6 k (kilo) 103
m (milli) 10"3 M (mega) 106
c (centi) 10"2 G (giga) 109
XVII
Frequently used symbols
A surface area Ô temperature
a activity (thermodynamic) t time
D diffusion constant V molar volume
Å energy, also Young's modulus õ velocity
f fugacity x mole fraction of component i
t
G Gibbs free energy æ depth
ë gravitational acceleration e strain
H heat content or enthalpy è strain rate
Ñ atmospheric pressure V viscosity
Ñ pore-fluid pressure Mi chemical potential of component i
R gas constant Ñ density
S entropy ó stress
ss , S principal stresses ô shear stress
u 2 3
Frequently used abbreviations of minerals
Alb = albite Ens = enstatite Per = periclase
Als = kyanite—andalusife—sillimanite For = f or s ter i te Pia = plagioclase
An = anorthite Gro = grossular Pre = prehnite
And = andalusite Hed = hedenbergite Pyp = pyrophyllite
Ank = ankerite Jad = jadeite Qtz = quartz
Ant = anthophyllite Kao = kaolinite Ser = serpentine
Bru = brucite Ksp = K-feldspar Sil = sillimanite
Cal = calcite Kya = kyanite Tal = talc
Cor = corundum Lau = laumontite War = wairakite
Dio = diopside Law = lawsonite Wo = wollastonite
Dol = dolomite Mus = muscovite Zos = zoisite
Dsp = diaspore
XVIII
Chemical symbols and elements
Ac actinium He helium Ra radium
Ag silver Hf hafnium Rb rubidium
Al aluminium Hg mercury Re rhenium
Ar argon Ho holmium Rh rhodium
As arsenic I iodine Rn radon
At astatine In indium Ru ruthenium
Au gold Ir iridium S sulphur
 boron Ê potassium Sb antimony
Ba barium Kr krypton Sc scandium
Be beryllium La lanthanum Se selenium
Bi bismuth Li lithium Si silicon
Br bromine Lu lutetium Sm samarium
C carbon Mg magnesium Sn tin
Ca calcium Ìç manganese Sr strontium
Cd cadmium Mo molybdenum Ta tantalum
Ce cerium Í nitrogen Tb terbium
Cl chlorine Na sodium Te technetium
Co cobalt Nb niobium Te tellurium
Cr chromium Nd neodymium Th thorium
Cs cesium Ne neon Ti titanium
Cu copper Ni nickel Tl thallium
Dy dysprosium 0 oxygen Tm thulium
Er erbium Os osmium U uranium
Eu europium Ñ phosphorus V vanadium
F fluorine Pa protactinium W tungsten
Fe iron Pb lead Xe xenon
Fr francium Pd palladium Y yttrium
Ga gallium Pm promethium Yb ytterbium
Gd gadolinium Po polonium Zn zinc
Ge germanium Pr praseodymium Zr zirconium
H hydrogen Pt platinum
