Table Of ContentEditors: Fluid Mechanics of
Gualtieri
Environmental Fluid Mechanics (EFM) studies the motion of air and water Mihailovic´
Environmental Interfaces
at several different scales, the fate and transport of species carried along
by these fluids, and the interactions among those flows and geological,
biological, and engineered systems. EFM emerged some decades ago as
a response to the need for tools to study problems of flow and transport in
rivers, estuaries, lakes, groundwater and the atmosphere; it is a topic of
increasing importance for decision makers, engineers, and researchers Second Edition
alike. The second edition of the successful textbook “Fluid Mechanics of
Environmental Interfaces” is still aimed at providing a comprehensive
overview of fluid mechanical processes occurring at the different
interfaces existing in the realm of EFM, such as the air-water interface,
the air-land interface, the water-sediment interface, the surface water-
groundwater interface, the water-vegetation interface, and the water- EF
biological systems interface. Across any of these interfaces mass, nl
u
momentum, and heat are exchanged through different fluid mechanical v
i
processes over various spatial and temporal scales. id
r
In this second edition, the unique feature of this book, considering all the o
M
topics from the point of view of the concept of environmental interface, was n
maintained while the chapters were updated and five new chapters have me
been added to significantly enlarge the coverage of the subject area. c
The book starts with a chapter introducing the concept of EFM and its eh
scope, scales, processes and systems. Then, the book is structured in na
three parts consisting of fifteen chapters. Part one, which comprises tn
a
four chapters, covers the processes occurring at the interfaces between i
lc
the atmosphere and the surface of the land and the seas, including the
Is
transport of dust and the dispersion of passive substances within the n
o
atmosphere. Part two deals in five chapters with the fluid mechanics at t
ef
the air-water interface at small scales and sediment-water interface,
r
including the advective diffusion of air bubbles, the hyporheic exchange
f
and the tidal bores. a
Finally, part three discusses in six chapters the processes at the interfaces c
between fluids and biotic systems, such as transport processes in the e
soil-vegetation-lower atmosphere system, turbulence and wind above s
and within the forest canopy, flow and mass transport in vegetated open
channels, transport processes to and from benthic plants and animals
and coupling between interacting environmental interfaces.
Each chapter has an educational part, which is structured in four sections:
a synopsis of the chapter, a list of keywords that the reader should have
encountered in the chapter, a list of questions and a list of unsolved
problems related to the topics covered by the chapter.
The book will be of interest to graduate students and researchers Editors:
in environmental sciences, civil engineering and environmental
engineering, (geo)physics, atmospheric science, meteorology, limnology, Carlo Gualtieri
oceanography, and applied mathematics.
Second
Dragutin T. Mihailovic´
Edition
an informa business
FLUIDMECHANICSOFENVIRONMENTALINTERFACES,SECONDEDITION
CarloGualtieri
Toallmylovedones
DragutinT.Mihailovic´
ToLadyNwhounderstoodmydreams
Fluid Mechanics of
Environmental Interfaces,
Second Edition
Editors
Carlo Gualtieri
Hydraulic,GeotechnicalandEnvironmentalEngineeringDepartment,
UniversityofNapoliFedericoII,Napoli,Italy
DragutinT. Mihailovic´
FacultyofAgriculture,UniversityofNoviSad,NovoSad,Serbia
CRC Press
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Table of contents
Preface VII
Prefaceofthefirstedition IX
Biographiesoftheauthors XIII
Part one – Preliminaries
1. Environmentalfluidmechanics:Currentissuesandfutureoutlook 3
B.Cushman-Roisin,C.Gualtieri&D.T.Mihailovic´
Part two – Processes at atmospheric interfaces
2. Pointsourceatmosphericdiffusion 21
B.Rajkovic´,I.Arsenic´ &Z.Grsic´
3. Air–seainteraction 53
V.Djurdjevic´ &B.Rajkovic´
4. Modellingoffluxexchangesbetweenheterogeneoussurfacesandatmosphere 79
D.T.Mihailovic´ &D.Kapor
5. Desertdustuptake-transportanddepositionmechanisms–impacts
ofdustonradiation,cloudsandprecipitation 107
G.Kallos,P.Katsafados&C.Spyrou
Part three – Processes at water interfaces
6. Gas-transferatunshearedfree-surfaces 145
C.Gualtieri&G.PulciDoria
7. Advectivediffusionofairbubblesinturbulentwaterflows 181
H.Chanson
8. Exchangesatthebedsediments-watercolumninterface 221
F.A.Bombardelli&P.A.Moreno
9. Surfacewaterandstreambedsedimentinteraction:Thehyporheicexchange 255
D.Tonina
10. Environmentalfluiddynamicsoftidalbores:Theoreticalconsiderationsand
fieldobservations 295
H.Chanson
VI Tableofcontents
Part four – Processes at interfaces of biotic systems
11. Transportprocessesinthesoil-vegetation-loweratmospheresystem 325
D.T.Mihailovic´
12. Turbulenceandwindaboveandwithintheforestcanopy 347
B.Lalic&D.T.Mihailovic´
13. Flowandmasstransportinvegetatedsurfacewaters 369
Y.Tanino
14. Uniformflowandboundarylayersoverrigidvegetation 395
P.Gualtieri&G.PulciDoria
15. Masstransportinaquaticenvironments 423
G.Nishihara&J.D.Ackerman
16. Mapsservingasthecombinedcouplingbetweeninteractingenvironmental
interfacesandtheirbehaviorinthepresenceofdynamicalnoise 453
D.T.Mihailovic´ &I.Balaž
Authorindex 473
Subjectindex 475
Preface
EnvironmentalFluidMechanics(EFM)studiesthemotionofairandwateratseveraldiffer-
entscales,thefateandtransportofspeciescarriedalongbythesefluids,andtheinteractions
amongthoseflowsandgeological,biological,andengineeredsystems.EFMemergedsome
decadesagoasaresponsetotheneedoftoolstostudyproblemsofflowandtransportin
rivers, estuaries, lakes, groundwater and the atmosphere; it is a topic of increasing con-
cern for decision makers, engineers, and researchers alike. The 1st edition of the book
“FluidMechanicsofEnvironmentalInterfaces”publishedin2008wasaimedatprovidinga
comprehensiveoverviewoffluidmechanicalprocessesoccurringatthedifferentinterfaces
existing in the realm of EFM, such as the air-water interface, the air-land interface, the
water-sedimentinterface,andthewater-vegetationinterface.Acrossanyoftheseinterface,
mass, momentum, and heat are exchanged through different fluid mechanical processes
overvariousspatialandtemporalscales.
Followingthepositivefeedbackaboutthe1steditionofthebookfromtheaudience,we
decidedtoofferanewedition.Threearethemainobjectivesthatwearewillingtoachieve
withthe2ndeditionof“FluidMechanicsofEnvironmentalInterfaces”. First, toallowall
the contributors to update their chapters considering recent findings in a fast developing
researchareaastheEFM.Second, toextendthecoverageofthebooktotopicsthatwere
notconsideredinthe1stedition,butareindeedofrelevanceintheEFMfield.Third,toadd
toeachchapteraneducationalparttoassistteachersandinstructorswhowillusethebook
asatextbookorasupplementaryreadingsintheirclasses.
Asforthe1stedition,thebookstartswithachapterintroducingtheconceptofEFMandits
scope,scales,processesandsystems.Then,thebookisstructuredinthreepartswithfifteen
chapters, fivemorethaninthe1stedition. Partone, whichiscomposedoffourchapters,
coverstheprocessesoccurringattheinterfacesoftheatmospherewithdesertsandseas.Part
twodealsinfivechapterswiththefluidmechanicsattheair-waterinterfaceatsmallscales
andsediment-waterinterface. Finally, partthreediscussesinsixchapterstheprocessesat
the interfaces between fluids and biotic systems. Most of the chapters existing in the 1st
editionwerecarefullyupdatedandinsomecasesalsodeeplyrevisedandre-organized,such
asforchapters5and14.
Asalreadypointedout,fivenewchapterswereadded.Chapter8,byF.Bombardelliand
P.Moreno,presentstheexchangesattheinterfacebetweenbedsedimentsandtheoverlying
waters.Theseinteractionshaveatremendousimportancefordiversenaturalandman-made
processessuchasfiningandarmouringinrivers,erosion/sedimentationinestuaries,andthe
cyclingofdifferentcontaminantsinwaterbodiesatlarge.Inthechapter,thecharacteristics
of sediment transport, the concept of incipient motion and the mass balance of solids at
theinterfacearefirstintroduced.Thenpredictorsofdiversevariablesneededforthemass
balance such as bed load flow rates, entrainment functions, and the settling velocity, and
the theory of suspended sediment and of bed load are presented. Moreover, the problem
of sediment-laden transport of contaminants in water bodies is addressed. Chapter 9 by
D. Tonina deals with the hyphoreic exchange. This term means the continuous mixing
betweensurfacewatersandgroundwaterduetospatialandtemporalvariationsinchannel
characteristics. The significance of hyporheic exchange in affecting surface and subsur-
face water quality and linking fluvial geomorphology, groundwater, and riverine habitat
for aquatic and terrestrial organisms has been emerging in recent decades as an impor-
tant component of conserving, managing, and restoring riverine ecosystems.The chapter
VIII Preface
presentstheconcepts,characteristicsandenvironmentaleffectsofhyporheicexchange,and
wereviewthemethodsformeasuringandpredictingitscharacteristics,i.e.hyporheicflux
andhyporheicresidencetime.Chapter10byH.ChansontreatsEFMaspectsoftidalbores.
Atidalboreisahydrodynamicshockpropagatingupstreamasthetidalflowturnstorising.
Thetidalborepassageisassociatedwithlargefluctuationsinwaterdepthandinstantaneous
velocitycomponentsandwithintenseturbulentmixing,andsedimentscourandadvection
in a natural system. Hence the occurrence of a tidal bore is critical to the environmental
balanceoftheestuarinezoneinariverandissuessuchasthesedimentationoftheupper
estuary, the impact on the reproduction and development of native fish species, and the
sustainabilityofuniqueeco-systemsshouldbeconsidered. Inthechapterboththeoretical
considerationsrelatedtotheapplicationofcontinuityandmomentumprinciplesintheanal-
ysisofatidalboreandfieldobservationsarepresented.Thecomplexinteractionsbetween
tidalboresandhumansocietyarealsoshortlydiscussed.Chapter13byY.Taninodescribes
flowandmasstransportunderconditionsrelevanttosurfacewatersystemswithemergent
vegetation.Vegetatedsurfacewatersaremodelledashomogeneousarraysofdiscrete,rigid,
two-dimensionalplantelements. First, typicalfieldconditionsaresummarized.Then, the
standardmathematicalformulationforflowthroughanarrayofelementsispresentedand
turbulenceandmasstransportwithinahomogeneouscanopyaredescribed.Finally,theflow
attheinterfacebetweenanemergentcanopyandopenwaterisconsidered.Chapter16by
D.T.Mihailovic´andI.Balazpresentsmapsservingasthecombinedcouplingbetweeninter-
actingenvironmentalinterfacesandtheirbehaviorinthepresenceofdynamicalnoise.Many
physicalandbiologicalproblems,inadditiontoenvironmentalproblems,canbedescribed
bythedynamicsofdrivencoupledoscillators.Thedynamicsoftwomapsactingasthecom-
binedcoupling(diffusiveandlinear)isdiscussedusingmethodsofnonlineardynamics,such
asbifurcationdiagram,Lyapunovexponent,sampleandpermutationentropy.
Asaboveexplained,thethirdreasonforthis2ndeditionwasthewillingoftheeditorsto
addattheendofeachchapteraneducationalpart.Thispartisstructuredinfoursections:
asynopsisofthechapter,alistofkeywordsthatthereadershouldhaveencounteredinthe
chapter,alistofquestionsandalistofunsolvedproblemsrelatedtothetopicscoveredby
thechapter.
Overall,theuniquefeatureofthisbooktoconsiderallthetopicsfromthepointofviewof
theconceptofenvironmentalinterfacewasmaintainedinthis2ndeditionwhilethecoverage
ofthebookwassignificantlyenlarged.Asforthe1stedition,theteamoftheinvolvedcon-
tributorsismostlyformedbyresearchershighlyexperiencedinthetopicstheyarecovering.
Asforthe1stedition, thebookisaimedatgraduatestudents, doctoralstudentsaswell
asresearchersincivilandenvironmentalengineering,environmentalsciences,atmospheric
sciences, meteorology, limnology, oceanography, physics, geophysics and applied math-
ematics.The book can be adopted as a textbook or supplementary reading for courses at
thegraduatelevelinEnvironmentalFluidMechanics,environmentalhydraulics,hydraulics,
openchannelflows,physicsoftheatmosphere,waterqualitymodeling,airqualitymodeling,
atmosphericturbulenceandbio-fluidmechanics.
The editors wish to thank all the chapter authors for their continuous and dedicated
effortthatmadepossibletherealizationofthisbook.Theeditorsalsothanktheanonymous
reviewers of the project for their suggestions and the colleagues, namely F. Bombardelli,
A. Bordas, S.T. Rao, and K. Zamani, who presented the 1st edition of the book on inter-
national journals such as Environmental Fluid Mechanics, Idojaras and Environmental
Modelling and Software, providing thoughtful and detailed remarks that were considered
in improving the coverage, the contents and the presentation of this 2nd edition. The
editors finally acknowledge with gratitude the assistance of the Editorial Office of CRC
Press/Balkemaand,especially,ofDr.JanjaapBlomandMs.JoséVanderVeer.
October2012
CarloGualtieri
DragutinT.Mihailovic´
Preface of the first edition
ThefieldofEnvironmentalFluidMechanics(EFM)aboundswithvariousinterfaces, and
it is an ideal place for the application of new fundamental approaches leading towards a
betterunderstandingofinterfacialphenomena.Inouropinion,theforegoingdefinitionof
an environmental interface broadly covers the unavoidable multidisciplinary approach in
environmentalsciencesandengineeringalsoincludesthetraditionalapproachesinsciences
that are dealing with an environmental space less complex than any one met in reality.
Anenvironmentalinterfacecanbealsoconsideredasabiophysicalunitlyingbetweenthe
environmentandtheorganizationhavingthefollowingmajorfunctions:(1)topreventthe
harmful signals from being injected into the system directly and attacking the valuable
structures and channels; (2) to unify the various directions from sub-systems and recur-
sive operations towards the environment; and (3) to fully utilize the internal resources by
resolvingexternalvariables.Thewealthandcomplexityofprocessesatthisinterfacedeter-
minethatthescientists,asitoftenseems,aremoreinterestedinapossibilityofnon-linear
dislocations and surprises in the behavior of the environment than in a smooth extrapo-
lation of current trends and a use of the approaches close to the linear physics. In recent
times, researchesonfluidmechanicsprocessesattheenvironmentalinterfaceshavebeen
increasingly undertaken but within different scientific fields and with various applicative
objectives.
Theaimofthebookistopresentacomprehensiveoverviewoffluidmechanicalprocesses
attheseveralenvironmentalinterfaces.Hence,themattercollectedinthebookcanbecon-
sideredasapartofthebroadercontextofEnvironmentalFluidMechanicsinwhichstrong
emphasisisplacedontheprocessesinvolvingtheexchangeofmomentum,massandheat
acrossanenvironmentalinterface.Thebookisaimedatgraduatestudents,doctoralstudents
aswellasresearchersincivilandenvironmentalengineering,environmentalsciences,atmo-
sphericsciences, meteorology, limnology, oceanography, physics, geophysicsandapplied
mathematics.Thebookcanbeadoptedasatextbookorsupplementaryreadingforcourses
atthegraduatelevelinEnvironmentalFluidMechanics,environmentalhydraulics,physics
of the atmosphere, water quality modeling, air quality modeling, atmospheric turbulence
andbio-fluidmechanics.
Previous books within the EFM field covered only partially the topics presented here.
In fact, books on atmosphere dynamics or on air pollution cover only the chapters in the
Part 1 of the book.Also, existing books on water quality issues deals only partially with
theprocessesattheenvironmentalinterfacesofthehydrosphere.Furthermore,sometopics
treated in this book, such as momentum and mass-exchange in vegetated open channels,
could be found only in papers published on scientific journals. It should be stressed that
the book has the unique feature to cover a broad range of scientific knowledge where all
thetopicsareconsideredfromthepointofviewoftheconceptofenvironmentalinterface.
Finally,theteamoftheinvolvedauthorsismostlyformedbyresearcherswithmanyyears
ofexperiencesinthetopicstheyarecovering.
ThebookisorganizedinthreepartswithanintroductivechapterbyB.Cushman-Roisin,
C.GualtieriandD.T.Mihailovic´, wherescope, scales, processesandsystemsofEFMare
described and discussed together with an overview of EFM processes at environmental
interfacesandofchallengestobeexpectedinthenextfuture.
Part one deals with the processes at the atmospheric interfaces. First, the chapter by
B.Rajkovic´, I.Arsenic´ andZ.Grsic´ coverssometheoreticalaspects, includingmolecular
