Fluid Flow and Transport in Rocks: Mechanisms and effects

329 Pages·1996·19.701 MB·English

by  Bjørn Jamtveit, Bruce W. D. Yardley (auth.), Bjørn Jamtveit, Bruce W. D. Yardley (eds.)

FLUID FLOW AND
TRANSPORT IN ROCKS
JOIN US ON THE INTERNET VIA WWW, GOPHER, FTP OR EMAIL:
WWW: http://www.thomson.com
GOPHER: gopher.thomson.com
A service of I(jJP
FTP: ftp.thomson.com
EMAIL: [email protected]
FLUID FLOW
AND TRANSPORT
IN ROCKS
Mechanisms and effects
Edited by
B. Jamtveit
Department of Geology
University of Oslo
and
B. W D. Yardley
Department of Earth Sciences
University of Leeds
lunl
CHAPMAN <'I'< HALL
London· Weinheim . New York· Tokyo· Melbourne· Madras
Published by Chapman 8< Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEt SHN, UK
Chapman & Hall, 2-6 Boundary Row, London SEl 8HN, UK
Chapman & Hall GmbH, Pappelallee 3, 69469 Weinheim, Germany
Chapman & Hall USA, 115 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10003, USA
Chapman & Hall Japan, ITP-Japan, Kyowa Building, 3F, 2-2-1 Hirakawacho,
Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102, Japan
Chapman & Hall Australia, 102 Dodds Street, South Melbourne, Vidoria
3205, Australia
Chapman & Hall India, R. Seshadri, 32 Second Main Road, CIT East,
Madras 600 035, India
First edition 1997
© 1997 Chapman & Hall
Soflcoverreprintofthehardcover 1st 1997
Typeset in 10/I2pt Palatino by AFS Image Setters Ltd, Glasgow
ISBN-l3: 978-94-010-7184-0 e-ISBN-13: 978-94-009-1533-6
DOl: 10.1007/978-94-009-1533-6
Apart from any fair dealing for the purposes of research or private study, or
criticism or review, as permitted under the UK Copyright Designs and Patents
Ad, 1988, this publication may not be reproduced, stored, or transmitted, in
any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of the
publishers, or in the case of reprographic reproduction only in accordance
with the terms of the licences issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency in
the UK, or in accordance with the terms of licences issued by the appropriate
Reproduction Rights Organization outside the UK. Enquiries concerning
reproduction outside the terms stated here should be sent to the publishers
at the London address printed on this page.
The publisher makes no representation, express or implied, with regard to
the accuracy of the information contained in this book and cannot accept
any legal responsibility or liability for any errors or omissions that may be made.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 96-86164
i§
Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance
with ANSIINISO Z39.48-1992 and ANSIINISO Z39.48-1984 (Permanence
of Paper).
DEDICATION
We dedicate this book to the memory of Professor understanding of basic sciences in general, set
Ivan Th. Rosenquist, former Professor of Petrology him in the position to attack an impressive variety
at the University of Oslo. Rosenquist, who died of problems across most of the traditional divides
on October 8, 1994 at the age of 78, was one in geology, including the rates of intracrystalline
of the most distinguished personalities in the diffusion, the mechanical and chemical properties
Norwegian Science community and one of of clays and clay-water systems and the effects
Norway's most highly regarded geoscientists of acid precipitation in soil and water. Ivan
since V.M. Goldschmidt. His thorough knowledge Rosenquist was an exceptionally intelligent and
of physical chemistry and exceptionally broad incorruptible scientist. May this book be in his spirit.
CONTENTS
Contributors xv
Preface xvii
1 Fluid flow and transport in rocks: an overview 1
Bjern ]amtveit and Bruce W. D. Yardley
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Effects of transport 2
1.2.1 Sedimentary settings 2
1.2.2 Contact metamorphic and hydrothermal systems 2
1.2.3 Regional metamorphic environments 3
1.3 Fluid-rock systems 4
1.3.1 Solubility 4
1.3.2 Distribution of fluids in rocks near textural equilibrium 4
1.3.3 Permeability 5
1.4 Transport in permeable rocks 6
1.4.1 Porous media flow 6
1.4.2 Fracture-controlled flow 7
1.4.3 Kinetic dispersion 8
1.4.4 Fluid focusing 8
1.4.5 Transient versus steady state flow 9
1.5 Conclusions 10
References 11
2 Lithological control on fluid flow in sedimentary basins 15
Knut BjliJrlykke
2.1 Introduction 15
2.2 Supply of fluids in sedimentary basins 16
2.2.1 Meteoric water 17
2.2.2 Compaction-driven flow 17
2.2.3 Generation of fluids from solids 17
2.2.4 Thermal expansion of fluids 19
2.2.5 Convection-driven fluid flow 19
2.3 Properties of sedimentary rocks 19
2.3.1 The rock matrix 20
2.3.2 Fractures 21
2.3.3 Faults 21
viii Contents
2.4 Fluid flow in relation to rock properties 23
2.4.1 Compaction of sediments and porosity and permeability prediction 23
2.4.2 Fractures in sandstones and limestones 24
2.4.3 Fractures and faults in mudrocks and shales 24
2.5 Oil migration 26
2.6 Fluid flow and diagenesis 28
2.7 Quantifications of fluid fluxes during basin subsidence - is large-scale, episodic
rapid dewatering possible? 29
2.8 Formation of pressure compartments 30
2.9 Conclusions 31
Acknowledgements 32
References 32
3 Polygonal extensional fault systems: a new class of structure formed during
the early compaction of shales 3S
Joseph A. Cartwright
3.1 Introduction 35
3.2 Geological setting of the polygonal fault system 36
3.2.1 Extensional faults in the Palaeogene 36
3.3 3D seismic expression of the polygonal fault system 39
3.3.1 Structural interpretation of the 21/14 3D seismic survey 39
3.4 Fault genesis 47
3.4.1 Previous models 47
3.4.2 Volumetric contraction model 48
3.5 Implications of the polygonal fault system for fluid flow in the North Sea Basin 51
3.6 Compaction-related fault systems: how common are they? 53
Acknowledgements 54
References 54
4 Flow and transport during contact metamorphism and hydrothermal activity:
examples from the Oslo rift S 7
Bjorn Jam/veit, Hans Fredrik Grorud and Kristin Vala Ragnarsdottir
4.1 Introduction 57
4.2 Hydrodynamics and transport during contact metamorphism 58
4.2.1 Application of transport models 59
4.3 Contact metamorphism in the Oslo rift 60
4.3.1 Geological setting 60
4.3.2 Previous work 63
4.3.3 Four selected contact aureoles 63
4.3.4 Stable isotope results 66
4.3.5 Rare earth elements, Sr and Nd isotope results 70
4.4 Discussion 72
4.4.1 Fluid production and flow 74
4.4.2 Mass transport and fluid-rock mass transfer 77
4.4.3 The nature of the fluid phase 78
4.5 Conclusions 78
Contents ix
Acknowledgements 79
References 79
5 Porosity and permeability of carbonate rocks during contact metamorphism 83
Lukas P. Baumgartner, Martha L. Gerdes, Mark A. Person and Gregory T. Roselle
5.1 Introduction 83
5.2 Examples of relict porosity in contact metamorphosed carbonate rocks 85
5.3 Stochastic modelling of fluid flow in contact aureoles 91
5.3.1 Stochastic permeability models for the Alta, Utah, contact aureole 93
5.4 Conclusions 95
Acknowledgements 96
References 96
6 The evolution of fluids through the metamorphic cycle 99
Bruce W. D. Yardley
6.1 Introduction 99
6.2 Equilibrium and crustal fluids 100
6.2.1 Fluids in sedimentary basins: the inputs to metamorphism 100
6.2.2 Fluid evolution in passive continental margins 100
6.2.3 Fluid evolution in accretionary zones and oceanic settings 102
6.2.4 Summary: fluids at the onset of metamorphism 102
6.3 Modification and evolution of fluids during metamorphism 103
6.3.1 Metamorphism and fluid salinity 103
6.3.2 Solvent species and immiscibility in metamorphism 104
6.3.3 Solute chemistry of metamorphic fluids 106
6.3.4 Additional ligands and the complexing of minor elements 107
6.4 Fluid pressures and permeability during diagenesis and metamorphism 108
6.4.1 Metamorphic fluid fluxes 109
6.5 Metamorphic fluids in cooling rocks: the retrograde stage 111
6.6 Discussion: identifying metamorphic fluid 115
6.7 Conclusions 116
Acknowledgements 116
References 117
7 Fluid transport, deformation and metamorphism at depth in a collision zone 123
Hakon Austrheim and Ane K. Engvik
7.1 Introduction 123
7.2 Fluid-induced eclogitization in the Bergen Arcs 124
7.2.1 Fluid flow through fractures in garnets 126
7.3 Eclogitization of banded granulites, Sunnfjord, WGR 128
7.4 Fracturing and deformation during amphibolitization of granulites 131
7.5 Discussion 133
7.6 Conclusions 135
Acknowledgements 135
References 135
x Contents
8 Coupled reaction and flow in subduction zones: silica metasomatism in the
mantle wedge 139
Craig E. Manning
8.1 Introduction 139
8.2 Background 139
8.3 Phase relations and Si0 concentration 140
2(aq)
8.4 Coupled reaction and flow in the mantle wedge 142
8.4.1 Conceptual model 142
8.4.2 Numerical model 143
8.4.3 Results 143
8.5 Discussion 145
8.6 Conclusions 146
Acknowledgements 147
References 147
9 Surface chemical controls on pore-fluid connectivity in texturally equilibrated
materials 149
Marian B. Holness
9.1 Introduction 149
9.2 Surface energy controls on pore-fluid connectivity 149
9.3 Grain boundaries, interfaces and interfacial energies 151
9.4 The thermodynamics of surfaces 152
9.5 The effect of surface energy anisotropy on fluid phase topology 154
9.6 Patterns of surface chemistry determined in metallic systems 156
9.7 Inference of surface chemistry from variation in dihedral angle 158
9.8 Experimental determinations of fluid-solid dihedral angles in geological systems 159
9.8.1 Metamorphic fluids 159
9.8.2 Melt-solid systems 161
9.9 Discussion 161
9.9.1 Criteria for fluid connectivity 164
9.10 Conclusions 165
References 166
10 Quanti6cation of microscopic porous networks by image analysis and
measurements of permeability in the Soultz-sous-Forets granite (Alsace, France) 171
PaulSardini, Beatrice Ledesert and Gerard Touchard
10.1 Introduction 171
10.2 Geological context 171
10.3 Material and methods 173
10.3.1 Connectivity of the four major mineral species in the granite 174
10.3.2 Microfradures in quartz crystals 174
10.3.3 Dissolution voids in plagioclase crystals 177
10.3.4 Permeability measurements 178
Contents xi
10.4 Results and discussion 178
10.4.1 Connectivity of the four major mineral species in the granite 178
10.4.2 Microfractures in quartz crystals 180
10.4.3 Dissolution voids in plagioclase crystals 181
10.4.4 Permeability measurements 182
10.4.5 Correlations between physical measurements and image analysis 184
10.5 Conclusions 186
Acknowledgements 187
References 188
11 Network topology and homogenization of fractured rocks 191
Lanru ling and Ove 5tephansson
11.1 Introduction 191
11.2 Fracture system characterization - previous experience 192
11.3 Combinatorial topology for network characterization 194
11.4 Network topology and percolation threshold 196
11.5 Homogenization and REV 197
11.6 Homogenization for flow analysis - an example 198
11. 7 Conclusions 201
Acknowledgements 201
References 201
12 Fractal structures in secondary migration 203
Geri Wagner, Vidar Frette, Aleksander Birovljev, Torstein jl3ssang, Paul Meakin and
lens Feder
12.1 Introduction 203
12.2 Simulation of secondary migration 204
12.3 Simulated secondary migration in heterogeneous media 206
12.4 Simulated secondary migration in multi-affine media 207
12.5 Summary 209
Acknowledgements 210
References 210
13 Flow along fractures in sedimentary basins 213
Tom Pedersen, Magnus Wangen and Harald johansen
13.1 Introduction 213
13.2 Fluid velocities 214
13.2.1 Compaction flow 214
13.2.2 Compaction of overpressured sections 219
13.2.3 Focused aquifer flow 222
13.3 Fracture temperatures 222
13.4 Fracture cementation 224
13.4.1 Fracture width (equilibrium) 224
13.4.2 Fracture width (kinetics) 225
13.4.3 1D kinetic model 227