Table Of ContentFluid Chemistry,
Drilling and
Completion
Oil and Gas Chemistry Management Series
Fluid Chemistry,
Drilling and
Completion
Volume 1
Edited by
Qiwei Wang
Saudi Aramco, Dhahran, Saudi Arabia
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Contents
List ofcontributors................................................................................................xiii
CHAPTER 1 Reservoir fluid geodynamics........................................1
Oliver C. Mullins,Li Chen, Soraya S. Betancourt,
Vladislav Achourov, Hadrien Dumont, Jesus A. Can˜as,
Julia C. Forsytheand Andrew E. Pomerantz
1.1 Introduction....................................................................................1
1.2 Reservoir fluid geodynamics.........................................................2
1.2.1 Asphaltene science..............................................................6
1.2.2 Oraintelligent wirelineformationtesting
platform and DFA.............................................................11
1.3 RFG oilfield case studies.............................................................14
1.3.1 RFG applied toa light oil reservoir.................................14
1.3.2 RFG applied toa black oil field.......................................21
1.4 RFG workflow..............................................................................28
1.5 Conclusions..................................................................................30
Nomenclature...............................................................................31
References....................................................................................32
CHAPTER 2 Sampling petroleum fluids.........................................41
Curtis Hays Whitson, SisselØ.Martinsen and Bilal Younus
2.1 Introduction..................................................................................42
2.1.1 From upstreamtodownstream.........................................43
2.1.2 Sampling types—theshort list..........................................44
2.1.3 Definingreservoirtype.....................................................44
2.1.4 Fluidinitialization.............................................................45
2.1.5 In situ-representativeversus reservoir
representativesamples......................................................48
2.1.6 Developing PVT models...................................................49
2.2 Samplingprocedures and measurements.....................................52
2.2.1 Sampling types..................................................................52
2.2.2 How do we use samples?..................................................65
2.2.3 Sampling standards...........................................................66
2.2.4 Compositionalanalyses....................................................67
2.3 Samplingstrategies......................................................................68
2.3.1 Balancing wish lists and costs..........................................68
2.3.2 Discovery wells.................................................................69
2.3.3 Delineation wells..............................................................70
v
vi Contents
2.3.4 Productionwells................................................................70
2.3.5 EOR wells.........................................................................71
2.3.6 Problem wells....................................................................71
2.3.7 Fluid system considerations..............................................71
2.4 Special issues in sampling...........................................................74
2.4.1 Sample storage..................................................................74
2.4.2 Separatorsampling............................................................75
2.4.3 Using contaminated PVT samples....................................77
2.4.4 Wax, asphaltenes,scale, and hydrates..............................81
2.4.5 Mudgas sampling.............................................................83
2.4.6 Tight unconventionals.......................................................83
2.5 Conclusions..................................................................................87
Nomenclature...............................................................................89
References....................................................................................91
CHAPTER 3 Water chemistry..........................................................95
WeiWang and WeiWei
3.1 Introduction..................................................................................95
3.2 Types ofwater samples................................................................96
3.3 Water sampling and analysis.......................................................97
3.4 Water data evaluation..................................................................99
3.5 Water chemistrydata interpretationandreconciliation............100
3.6 Factors that impact/change water chemistry.............................101
3.7 Field case examples ofwater chemistry application.................105
3.7.1 Original oil inplace(OOIP)estimate............................106
3.7.2 Water sourceidentification.............................................106
3.7.3 Management ofscale,corrosion, andother
water-related production problems.................................107
3.7.4 Producedwater chemistry surveillance and
applicationsinshaleand tight plays...............................109
3.8 Final remarks..............................................................................110
Nomenclature.............................................................................111
References..................................................................................111
CHAPTER 4 Drilling fluids............................................................115
Jay P. Deville
4.1 Introduction................................................................................115
4.2 Drillingfluidfunctions...............................................................116
4.2.1 Formationpressure management and wellbore
stability(cid:1)fluid density....................................................116
4.2.2 Hole cleaning—fluid rheological properties..................119
Contents vii
4.2.3 Seal permeable formations—fluid loss control
and bridging....................................................................122
4.2.4 Reduce friction—fluid lubricity.....................................123
4.2.5 Other functions................................................................124
4.3 Drilling fluid types.....................................................................124
4.4 Aqueous-based fluids.................................................................125
4.4.1 Water-basedfluidadditives............................................125
4.4.2 Water-basedfluids types.................................................141
4.5 Nonaqueous fluids......................................................................143
4.5.1 Nonaqueous fluids additives...........................................144
4.5.2 Nonaqueous fluidtypes..................................................156
4.6 Reservoir drilling fluids.............................................................159
4.6.1 Reservoir drilling fluid additives....................................161
4.7 Conclusion..................................................................................166
Nomenclature.............................................................................167
References..................................................................................168
CHAPTER 5 Cementing additives.................................................187
Arnaud Cadix and SimonJames
5.1 Introduction................................................................................187
5.2 Cementbasics.............................................................................188
5.2.1 Chemical notation...........................................................188
5.2.2 Portland cement chemistry.............................................189
5.2.3 Hydration of Portlandcement.........................................190
5.2.4 Interparticle interactions.................................................196
5.2.5 Application towell cements...........................................196
5.3 Slurry formulation......................................................................197
5.3.1 Temperature....................................................................197
5.3.2 Slurrydensity..................................................................198
5.3.3 Placement time................................................................203
5.3.4 Rheologicalproperties....................................................216
5.3.5 Fluidloss control............................................................225
5.3.6 Gas migration control.....................................................234
5.3.7 Other additives................................................................237
5.4 Summary.....................................................................................241
5.4.1 Polymers incement formulations...................................241
5.4.2 Formulation approach.....................................................244
Nomenclature.............................................................................244
Conversion Factors....................................................................245
Acknowledgments.....................................................................245
References..................................................................................246
viii Contents
CHAPTER 6 Completion and workover fluids ..............................255
Balakrishnan Panamarathupalayam
and Cedric Manzolelua
6.1 Introduction................................................................................256
6.2 Types ofcompletion brines........................................................256
6.2.1 Halide brines (inorganic salts)........................................257
6.2.2 Formatebrines (organicsalts)........................................258
6.2.3 Potassiumcarbonatebrine..............................................258
6.3 Considerationsfor completion brine selection..........................259
6.3.1 Density requirement........................................................259
6.3.2 Crystallization temperature.............................................260
6.3.3 Hydrate inhibition...........................................................261
6.3.4 Compatibility with formation fluids...............................263
6.3.5 Compatibility with reservoir matrix...............................264
6.3.6 Corrosion ofcompletion hardware.................................264
6.3.7 Environmental and safety...............................................265
6.3.8 Cost..................................................................................267
6.4 Completion brineproperties measurement................................267
6.4.1 Density............................................................................267
6.4.2 Iron content.....................................................................268
6.4.3 Turbidity..........................................................................268
6.4.4 Total suspended solids....................................................268
6.5 Completion brineadditives........................................................269
6.5.1 Corrosion inhibitors........................................................269
6.5.2 Lubricants........................................................................272
6.5.3 Viscosifierand fluid loss control....................................274
6.6 Conclusion..................................................................................277
Nomenclature.............................................................................278
References..................................................................................278
CHAPTER 7 Packer fluids.............................................................283
RosaSwartwout and Arthur Hale
7.1 Introduction................................................................................283
7.2 Types ofpackerfluids................................................................284
7.3 Solids-free brines........................................................................284
7.4 Packer fluidproperties...............................................................287
7.4.1 Density............................................................................287
7.4.2 Crystallization temperature.............................................288
7.4.3 Fluid clarity.....................................................................288
7.4.4 Corrosion andcorrosion inhibition.................................289
7.4.5 Fluid compatibility..........................................................291
Contents ix
7.5 Displacement..............................................................................291
7.6 Safety..........................................................................................292
7.7 Summary.....................................................................................292
Nomenclature.............................................................................293
References..................................................................................293
CHAPTER 8 Carbonate matrix stimulation...................................297
Murtaza Ziauddin
8.1 Introduction................................................................................297
8.2 Candidate selection....................................................................299
8.3 Chemicaland physical processes incarbonate acidizing..........302
8.3.1 Reactions of carbonate rocks with strong
inorganic acids................................................................302
8.3.2 Reactions of carbonate rocks with weak organic
acidsand chelants...........................................................305
8.3.3 Carbonate dissolution patterns: influence of
transportand reaction......................................................308
8.3.4 Wormhole growth models..............................................313
8.3.5 Influence ofmineralogy and porosity type....................314
8.4 Stimulationfluid engineering....................................................319
8.4.1 Single-phase retarders for HCl(cid:1)carbonatereaction......319
8.4.2 Organic acids andchelants.............................................320
8.4.3 Polymer and viscoelastic surfactant gelled acids...........322
8.4.4 Emulsified acids..............................................................324
8.4.5 Foamed acids...................................................................326
8.5 Stimulationtreatmentdesign.....................................................326
8.5.1 Designchallenges...........................................................328
8.5.2 Designoptimization........................................................330
8.6 Summary.....................................................................................332
Nomenclature.............................................................................333
References..................................................................................333
CHAPTER 9 Sandstone matrix stimulation...................................341
Mohamed Mahmoud and Ibrahim Gomaa
9.1 Introduction................................................................................342
9.2 Formationdamage mechanisms insandstone reservoirs..........344
9.2.1 Clay swelling...................................................................344
9.2.2 Fines migration...............................................................345
9.2.3 Inorganic scale deposition..............................................347
9.2.4 Organic scale deposition.................................................348
9.2.5 Damage during drilling andcompletion.........................348
9.2.6 Damage during reservoirstimulation.............................349
x Contents
9.3 Acid types...................................................................................350
9.3.1 Hydrofluoric acid and mud acid.....................................350
9.3.2 HCl acid..........................................................................354
9.3.3 Retarded acids.................................................................355
9.3.4 Chelating agents..............................................................356
9.3.5 Organic acid mixtures.....................................................358
9.3.6 New developments..........................................................359
9.4 Acid additives.............................................................................360
9.4.1 Corrosion inhibitor..........................................................360
9.4.2 Surfactants.......................................................................361
9.4.3 Clay stabilizers................................................................361
9.4.4 Iron control agents..........................................................361
9.4.5 Liquefiedgases and foaming agents..............................363
9.5 Acid diversion and placement....................................................363
9.5.1 Mechanical means...........................................................363
9.5.2 Chemicalmeans..............................................................365
9.6 Laboratory testing techniques and equipment...........................366
9.6.1 Rock solubility tests........................................................366
9.6.2 Core flooding experiments..............................................367
9.6.3 Petrographic tests............................................................368
9.6.4 Zeta potential measurement/surfacecharge...................369
9.7 Treatment design........................................................................369
9.7.1 Preflushstage..................................................................369
9.7.2 Main flush stage..............................................................370
9.7.3 Postflushstage.................................................................371
9.8 Sandstoneacidizing models.......................................................371
9.8.1 Conventional permeability models.................................371
9.8.2 Permeability model with mineralogy effect...................372
9.8.3 Precipitation models........................................................376
9.9 Field treatments..........................................................................376
9.10 Summary.....................................................................................377
Nomenclature.............................................................................379
References..................................................................................379
CHAPTER 10 Acid fracturing stimulation.......................................387
FrankF. Chang
10.1 Petroleumengineering and geological aspects..........................387
10.2 Acid fracturing chemistry..........................................................389
10.3 Reactionkinetics........................................................................393
10.4 Systemofchemical additives inacid........................................400
10.4.1 Corrosion inhibitors......................................................401
