Table Of ContentI
I I
Adam and Eve holding hands below twinkling stars, the
Virgin being adored by an angel, a spectacularly detailed
interior in the background, or else a tavern of promiscu
ity in which men and women are bathing together,
enjoying food and drink. .. The medieval miniaturist's
imagination was inexhaustible, his skill unequalled.
With fine highlights and dazzling color combinations he
portrayed his world: the daily life on streets and squares,
the artisans in their workshops, the construction of churches and cloth halls, con
ceptions of the cosmos, God, heaven and hell. People today regard these images
with increasing amazement and admiration.
This richly illustrated presentation book, Flemish Miniatures, by the world
renowned specialist Maurits Smeyers offers an impressive overview of the legacy
of numerous generations of miniaturists active in the Low Countries. Never before
have so many miniatures -more than 600 color illustratrions -been reproduced in
one book, never before has the reader-viewer been presented with such a com
plete overview of the art of Flemish miniatures from the 8th to the 16th century. It
is a masterpiece in the true sense of the word.
In pre-Romanesque tjmes monasteries and monks were the privileged owners of
manuscripts. Chains were attached to the,rh in order to prevent dishonest individ
uals from removing them. Gospels, Sacramentaries, Lives of Saints, and Psalters
were prodqced. In the course of the 13th century, skilled laymen also took up their
brushes, the subj_ects portrayed were no longer exclusively religious. Bruges and
Ghent became the center of the international book trade. Orders from all over
Europe flowed in and manuscripts were shipped to patrons.
Flemish Miniatures presents the fascinating history of eight centuries of the art of
miniatures from the Low Countries and offers a complete overview of and insight
into what was then a true art industry.
,,·
ISBN 90-5826-024-0
111L1t
FRONT COVER:
Adam and Eve in Paradise, Lune des sept
ages du monde, Mons, Pilavaine work
shop, miniature by Simon Marmion, ea.
1455. -Brussels, Bibliotheque royale
Albert le, ms. 904 7, fol. 1. v.
BACK COVER:
Initial from Jacques le Grand, Lune des
bonnes moeurs, Tournai, ca.1420. -
Brussels, Bibliotheque royale Albert le,
ms. 9544, fol. 122.
Border decoration from Miroir de la salva
tion humaine, Bruges, 1455. -Glasgow,
University Library, ms. Hunter 60, fol. 1.
MAURITS SMEYERS
I
emis
I I
1n1atures
. from the 8th to the mid-16th Century
THE MEDIEVAL WORLD
ON PARCHMENT
Davidsfo nds/Leuven
Acknowledgements
This survey of eight centuries of Flemish manuscript illumination is the result of extensive
research. In a number of chapters I was able to draw on my earlier publications regarding
certain aspects of this field. These have, however, been reworked, extended, and incorpor
ated into a greater whole. The most recent literature was constantly reviewed. When the
opinions of specialists differed I opted for that which seemed most valid. And yet, academic
discussion has been curtailed because of the remit of this book: it is a "narrative" rather
than a detailed study.
I have relied extensively on the documentation concerning Flemish manuscripts
which since 1983 has been gathered at the Studiecentrum Vlaamse Miniaturisten (K. U.
Leuven). I am very grateful to the staff at this centerwho facilitated the completion of this
book. First among these would be Dr. B. Cardon; as joint director of the aforementioned
center his contribution was of great significance. I would also like to thank Jessica Dobratz,
Anke Esch, Katrien Smeyers, Sophie Somers, Rita van Dooren, Susie Vertongen, and Bar
bara Bae rt, all of whom chipped in literally or through work-in-progress seminars.
I am particularly grateful to Dominique van Wijnsberghe who read the text carefully
and saw to the bibliography, as well as to Tine Melis and Katrien Smeyers who helped to
gather the iconographic material.
.. I would like to dedicate this publication to those who have supported us by develop
ing the Studiecentrum: the Research Council of the Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, FWO
Vlaanderen, the Vlaamse Gemeenschap, the National BankofBelgium, and the Baert-Hof
man Professorial Chair in Art History (K. U. Leuven).
Finally, great thanks are owed to Davidsfonds for wishing to include this study
among their publications and for producing it with the greatest of care and attention.
Translation by Karen Bowen and Dirk Imhof, with contributions by Simon Dell, Tom John
ston, and MargitTh0fner.
Smeyers, Maurits
Flemish Miniatures
From the 8th to the mid-16th Century
The Medieval World on Parchment
©1999, UitgeverijDavidsfonds/Leuven, Leuven
Blijde-Inkomststraat 79-81, B-3000 Leuven
528 pages, 31,5 cm
Printed and bound by Lannoo drukkerij, Tielt
Photogravure: ROscan
Cover design: GregiedeMaeyer
Design: Gregie de Ma eyer and Peer de Ma eyer
D/1999/0240/18
ISBN 90 5826 024 0
Target group: adults
NUGI912 UDC74 SISO 736.2
All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be copied, stored in an automated data file,
and/or made public in any form or in any manner, whether electronic,
mechanical, by photocopies, recordings, or any other way
without the prior written consent of the publisher.
Published with the support of the Flemish Community, Administration Culture.
Contents
Introduction ChapterV
THE GREAT LABYRINTH 7 MANUSCRIPTS FOR CITIES, MONASTERIES,
1. A Short CulturalHistory of the Medieval Book 9 ANDTHEUNIVERSITY(1420-1475) 229
2. The Making of Manuscripts, a Complex Process 13 1. TheGuildSystem 231
3. TheManyFacetsofManuscriptillumination 14 2. Bruges and Ghent, the Twin Centers
4. TheHistoricalSetting 1 7 of Flemish Manuscript Illumination 234
5. FlemishManuscriptillumination 19 3. The BorderingTerritories: Northern France,
Tournai, and Brabant 255
Chapter I 4. TheHeritageofVanEyck 257
SIGN AND MEANING: 5. The Monastic Patronage 269
THE PRE-ROMANESQUE PERIOD (8thto 11th CENTURY) 21 6. Leuven: Manuscripts for the University · 278
1. MonasticScriptoria 23
2. The First Stirrings (8 th to 9th century) 25 ChapterV1
3. Pre-Romanesque Manuscript Illumination in Flanders THEPATRONAGEOFPHILIPTHEGOOD
and Northern France 34 AND HIS CIRCLE: FLEMISH MANNERISM ( 1419-146 7) 287
4. Pre-Romanesque Manuscript Illumination 1. A Learned Prince 289
in the Mosan region 44 2. MiniaturesandPolitics 299
3. Manuscripts for Isabella ofP ortugal 326
Chapter II 4. Bibliophilia in the Circle oft he Duke 328
REPRESENTING THE INVISIBLE: 5. SimonMarmion, "Princeofilluminators" 338
THE ROMANESQUE PERIOD (12thCENTURY) 55
1. ImageandSign 57 ChapterVII
2. Benedictine Abbeys in Northern France, CHARLES THE BOLD AND MARGARET OF YORK:
Flanders, and Hainaut 58 BOOKSONHEROESANDSAINTS (1467-1477) 353
3. Cistercian Manuscripts, Ideals of Humility 85 1. Illuminated Manuscripts for Charles the Bold 355
4. The Benedictines of the Mosan region 89 2. MargaretofYorkandtheDevotionalBook 374
5. Masterpieces from the Premonstratensian Milieu 99 3. RenewalinGhent 392
4. Manuscripts for Citizens, Nobles, and Princes of the Church 400
Chapter III
COURTLY NARRATIVES: Chapter VIII
EARLY AND LATE GOTHIC (1200-1350) 111 LATEGOTHICMANUSCRIPTILLUMINATIONINFLANDERS:
1. Books for the Laity, Books by the Laity 113 REALITYTRANSCENDED ( 14 7 5-1550) 41 7
2. The Contribution of the Cities of Northern France 116 1. Realism in Three Dimensions 4 1 9
3. Bruges and Ghent: Psalters 2. Famousilluminators 424
for the Upper Class Citizens 136 3. BibliophilesintheLowCountries 434
4. ManuscriptsforMonasticUse 146 4. AninternationallyRenownedArt 466
5. Tournai, Hainaut, and Brabant 150
6. PsaltersoftheMosanregion 157 Epilogue
ILLUMINATED MANUSCRIPTS VERSUS PRINTED BOOKS 485
Chapter IV 1. Printing: a Slow Beginning 487
THE INTELLECTUAL EMANCIPATION OF THE CITIZENRY: 2. ThePowerofHandmadeBooks 492
THE BREAKTHROUGH OF REALISM (1350-1420) 173 3. TheSecondFlowering 498
1. Pre-EyckianRealism: "afterthelikenessofnature" 175 4. According to the Medieval Example:
2. Flemish Illuminators in France and England 1 79 the 19thand20thcenturies 502
3. Manuscript Illumination in Flanders 1 90
4. BrugesasaninternationalBookMarket 194 Bibliography 505
5. On the Periphery: Northern France, IndexofManuscripts 51 7
Tournai, Hainaut, and Brabant 215 Indexofllluminators 524
List ofA bbreviations 526
Photographic Credits 527
INTRODUCTION: THEGREATLABYRINTH
INTRODUCTION
[1]
. 8
INTRODUCTION: THEGREATLABYRINTH
1.A SHORTCULTURALHISTORY
OF THE MEDIEVAL BOOK
The representation of people reading in works of art by old mas table. There are books that no one buys, that no one reads, that no
ters is captivating. In the Ghent Altarpiece, Jan van Eyck paint one understands. Moreover, one can easily purchase books any
ed nineteen figures holding beautiful books in their hands. In nurn- where in the world and in all languages. In the worst case, one can
rous late-medieval images St. Jerome reads and meditates in his even make use ofxeroxes, as xerox machines have, like an apoca
workplace, bent over and surrounded by books. On the Well of lyptic catastrophe, taken over the world: a catastrophe for the
Moses by Claus Sluter in the Carthusian monastery in Charnprnol, books that are damaged as a result and a catastrophe for the reader,
Lhe prophet Jeremiah is shown holding a heavy manuscript. Origin who makes a copy of the text but in so doing no longer digests it.
ally, the artist had also portrayed him with copper glasses. In num It is difficult to imagine the state of things prior to the invention
erous other works, donors kneel before a prayer stool upon which of printing. Numerous medieval authors believed in and sung the
Ii cs an open book. We often ask ourselves the following: what are praises of the book. Each manuscript was handled with great care
Lhese people reading? why are they holding their manuscripts so and cherished. This can be attributed to various factors. First, each
·arefully? why are the manuscripts so beautiful? and, ultimately, book was produced entirely by hand and was consequently unique
what is the secret behind the intimacy between people and books? and rare. In addition, manuscripts were costly due to both the
In general, the following answers to these questions can be materials - the parchment, gold leaf, and the numerous pigments
given. First, a book is a means of discovering reality, ofrevealing all that often had to be imported from distant places - and the time re
Lhat is alive in the world and all that belongs to the domain of rea quired to make the book-the writing and decoration of it-under
son. The whole of creation is reflected in a book. They are contain- what were often difficult circumstances. It is for these reasons that
r of knowledge and thought, treasure-houses of the mind. Hence, manuscripts fetch phenomenal prices at auctions today. They were
books serve as a way for man to determine and master his place in also expensive in the Middle Ages; only wealthy individuals could
the world. They are consequently the means by which man can tri afford manuscripts of decent quality.
umph over the unknown. Second, a book also provides an A book was more than just a useful object, however. It also had
opportunity to escape reality. A reader can become so absorbed by a strong sacred, almost magical significance. That the abstract form
the contents of a book, that he withdraws within it and forgets the ofletters could convey ideas seemed to border on witchcraft. The of
time. Third, a book can also serve as a weapon in the service of ten exuberant embellishment and the enlarged initials were meant
ideas. It can be a means ofattack, as with a pamphlet, or a means of to emphasize this extra-ordinary aspect of books. Moreover, relig
defense, as with an apologia. Many books contain a confession, a ious books were treated as a sort of shrine for the Holy Word: they
statement, or evidence pertaining to a certain conception or expec were displayed on ornear altars, protected by iron railings.
tation oflife. For this reason, we can often use books as a mirror in In addition, every manuscript was regarded as a repository of
which we can recognise ourselves, as a stimulus for reflection on wisdom and truth. Today, this value is relativized. A book is often
our own destiny and further contemplation. Not coincidentally, even received sceptically. For someone from the Middle Ages, what
numerous medieval authors refer to their tracts as a sort of mirror: was written was true; it was even truer than reality. Indeed, know
Speculum regum (rnirrorof princes), Speculum laicorum (rnirrorof ledge and scholarship were not based upon observation, but pri
the laity), Speculum virginum (mirror of virgins), Speculum hu marily upon the study of texts. The perception of man and of the
manae salvationis (rnirrorof rnan'ssalvation), etc. world - from their beginning to their end - was derived from what
In short, a book exerts a strong influence on our lives. It is a was learned from manuscripts. Monsters existed because scholars
valuable object due to its imperishable contents and its unique had described them in treatises. Books were consequently irre
form. According to medieval etymology, the word liber, or book, is placeable sources of truth as well as the source of knowledge, and
derived from libertas, or freedom. Strictly speaking, this is incor thereby a reflection of the ultimate wisdom of God Himself. Each
rect, but the explanation remains highly pertinent. One can, for ex piece of writing contained the Word of God, was inspired by Hirn, or
ample, freely pick up a book, open and close it. Because of the free else was related to the phenomenon
dom that a book offers it is a timeless and indestructible object. It al of the Creation. It was consequently
lows everyone, regardless of the moment, circumstances, or posi part of an eternal wisdom. Further
[ 1) Jean Mielot-a renowned translator and
tion of one's body, to get to know a personally chosen. more, a book revealed the ideas and author, and secretary to Philip the Good and
actions of people throughout time. later to Charles the Bold-at work in a room full
The printed word is now taken for granted. It can even be argued Thus, a written text could keep alive of splendid manuscripts. Miracles de Notre
Dame, part 1, Oudenaarde, Jan Tavernier, ea.
that the market is currently flooded with too many publica the profound thoughts and exem
1456. -Paris, Bibliotheque nationale, ms. fr.
tions. There are books for reading on the train and for the bedside plary deeds of others. 9198, fol. 19 (370x260mm).
9
INTRODUCTION: THE GREATL ABYRINTH
I
(3]
Anotherreason why books were considered to be so important hears it read out loud; the truth also appeals to the sense of touch
lies in the old motto scnpta manent, "what is written endures". when it is copied over, summarized, corrected, and preserved."
This saying is still applicable. The word is indestructible and, like In his De vita solitan·a (T he Life qfS olitude) Petrarch (1 304-
water, finds its way around the world by whatever means neces 1374) expands on the idea that books are human: "Books are
sary. The very survival of written texts is itselfa reward for their au pleasant and unfailing company. The can appear when you wish or
thors. The English bishop Richard of Bury, the most eminent biblio be returned to the shelf. They are always prepared to be silent or to
phile of the 14th century, noted this idea in his Philobiblon, "On speak. They make themselves at home with you, they accompany
friendship with books": "Once a book is written and as long as it re you to the woods, they travel with you, they stay with you in the
mains in existence, it offers the author the privilege that he, as if countryside, they converse with you, amuse you, cheer you, con
athanatos (immortal), cannot die." sole you, advise you, correct you, and support you; they teach you
Finally, it has long been observed that books were often better the essence of things, memorable historical facts, standards to live
than one's best friend, more perfect than the most instructive and by, contempt for death, modesty when successful, perseverance in
learned professor, more human than the friendliest person. This the face of adversity, equanimity and steadfastness in all ventures;
idea was repeatedly expressed in the Middle Ages, perhaps best by they are learned and cheerful companions, useful and eloquent;
Richard of Bury: "Books are teachers that instruct us without a rod they do not give rise to annoyance or costs; they do not complain or
or a board, without angry words, without noting our clothes or our grumble; they are not jealous or treacherous. In addition to all of
wealth. When you go to them, they are not sleeping. If you ask these advantages, they require no food or drink and are content
them questions or are looking for information, they do not draw with simple clothing and a small place in your home, while in ex
back. They do not reprimand you when you err, they do not laugh at change they provide their hosts with invaluable spiritual and intel
you if your knowledge is wanting." Elsewhere he writes: "The truth lectual wealth, spacious residences, spectacular garments, enjoy
that streams out of books flows toward each of the pupil's senses able company, and delicious food."
that is ready to receive it: to the eyes, if one reads it, to the ears, if one
10
