Table Of ContentFlavor of Meat, Meat Products and
Seafoods
Second edition
Edited by
F. SHAHIDI
Department of Biochemistry
Memorial University of Newfoundland
St John's, Newfoundland
Canada
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Preface
Flavor is an important sensory aspect of the overall acceptability of muscle
foods. Complex flavor systems of meat, and seafoods in particular, are
comprised of both taste- and aroma-active components. While taste-active
constituents of muscle foods are generally non-volatile, their aroma-active
components are volatile in nature. Whether we accept or reject a food
depends primarily on its flavor, in the first instance aroma. Furthermore,
threshold values of different flavor active compounds have an important
effect on the cumulative sensory properties of all foods.
While meat and meat products, in the raw state, have little aroma and
only a blood-like taste, fresh seafoods have a more readily perceivable
aroma. The flavors of fresh seafoods are primarily impacted by lipoxyge-
nase-derived lipid-based volatiles and, to a lesser extent, environmentally
induced components such as halocompounds and amines. Upon heat pro-
cessing, many low-molecular-weight aroma-active compounds are formed
via lipid oxidation, Strecker degradation and Maillard reaction. Mode of
heat processing and presence of other constituents and additives also have
a profound effect on the flavor of prepared muscle foods.
The first edition of this book, published in 1994 and reprinted in 1995 and
1997, received overwhelming interest from professionals in the industry,
government laboratories and academic institutions. This edition provides
an updated presentation of the earlier material, but some have been re-
written completely by different scientists. The monograph has also been
expanded in order to include a discussion of flavor attributes of other
processed meats and seafoods. The first chapter provides an overview of the
field of muscle food flavor research while Chapter 2 discusses its chemistry.
Meanwhile, Chapters 3 to 8 present a concise account of the flavor of
different species of muscle foods, namely beef, pork, poultry, sheep, fish and
shellfish. In Chapters 9 to 15, the role of meat constituents and processing
on flavor is described. The final section of the book (Chapters 16 to 18)
summarizes analytical methodologies for assessing the flavor quality of
meat, meat products and seafoods.
Finally, I wish to extend my sincere thanks to all authors for their coop-
erative efforts and commendable contributions.
Fereidoon Shahidi
Contributors
M.E. Bailey Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,
21 Agricultural Building, University of Missouri-
Columbia, Columbia, MO 65211, USA
G. Bertelsen Department of Dairy and Food Science, The Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural University, Rolihedsvej
30, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
KX. Bett Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Agri-
cultural Research Service, 1100 Robert E. Lee
Boulevard, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
TJ. Braggins MIRINZ, East Street (Ruakara Campus), PO Box 671,
Hamilton, New Zealand
K.R. Cadwallader Department of Food Science and Technology, Missis-
sippi Agricultural and Forestry Experiment Station,
Mississippi State University, MS 39762-5953, USA
J. Chen Department of Food Science, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
C.-W. Chen Department of Food Science, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
T. Cheraghi Department of Food Science, Wageningen Agricul-
tural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
E. Durnford Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada,
AlB 3X9
M. Flores Institute de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos
(CSIC), Aparto de Correos 73, 46100 Burgassot,
Valencia, Spain
C.-T. Ho Department of Food Science, Rutgers University,
New Brunswick, NJ 08903, USA
AJ. MacLeod Department of Chemistry, King's College London,
Strand, London WC2R 2LS, UK
G. MacLeod 12 The Coppice, Rhine Field Road, Brockenhurst,
Hants. SO42 7QZ, UK
J.A. Maga Department of Food Science and Human Nutrition,
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, Colorado
80523, USA
A. Mikkelsen Department of Dairy and Food Science, The Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural University, Rolihedsvej
30, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
D.S. Mottram University of Reading, Department of Food Science
and Technology, Whiteknights, Reading, RG6 2AP,
UK
B.S. Pan Department of Marine Food Science, Fisheries Science
College, National Taiwan Ocean University, Keelung,
Taiwan, Republic of China
N. Ramarathnam GENOX Corporation, 1414 Key Highway, Baltimore,
MD 21230, USA
J.P. Roozen Department of Food Science, Wageningen Agricul-
tural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
J. Rozum Red Arrow Products Company Inc., Manitowoe,
WI 54221, USA
F. Shahidi Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada,
AlB 3X9
L.H. Skibstead Department of Dairy and Food Science, The Royal
Veterinary and Agricultural University, Rolihedsvej
30, DK-1958 Frederiksberg C, Denmark
A.M. Spanier Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Agri-
cultural Research Service, 1100 Robert E. Lee
Boulevard, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
S. Spurvey Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of
Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland, Canada,
AlB 3X9
AJ. St. Angelo Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Agri-
cultural Research Service, 1100 Robert E. Lee
Boulevard, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
F. Toldra Institute de Agroquimica y Tecnologia de Alimentos
(CSIC), Aparto de Correos 73, 46100 Burgassot,
Valencia, Spain
S.M. van Ruth Department of Food Science, Wageningen Agricul-
tural University, Wageningen, The Netherlands
B.T. Vinyard Southern Regional Research Center, USDA, Agri-
cultural Research Service, 1100 Robert E. Lee
Boulevard, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
O.A. Young MIRINZ, East Street (Ruakara Campus), PO Box
617, Hamilton, New Zealand
Contents
Preface ............................................................................ v
Contributors ..................................................................... vii
1. Flavour of Muscle Foods - an Overview ................ 1
1.1 Introduction ............................................................... 1
1.2 Flavour Volatiles of Muscle Foods ........................... 2
1.3 Impact of Processing and Storage on Muscle
Food Flavour ............................................................. 3
1.4 Methodologies and Concerns .................................. 3
References ........................................................................... 4
2. The Chemistry of Meat Flavour .............................. 5
2.1 Introduction ............................................................... 5
2.2 Meat Flavour Precursors .......................................... 5
2.3 Reactions Leading to Meat Aroma ........................... 6
2.3.1 Maillard Reaction ..................................... 7
2.3.2 Lipid Degradation ..................................... 9
2.4 Compounds Contributing to Meat Flavour ............... 10
2.5 Pathways for the Formation of Some Meat
Aroma Volatiles ......................................................... 13
2.6 Interaction of Lipid with the Maillard Reaction ......... 16
2.6.1 Model Systems ......................................... 17
2.6.2 Volatiles in Meat Formed Via Lipid-
Maillard Interaction ................................... 19
xi
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xii Contents
2.7 Conclusion ................................................................ 23
References ........................................................................... 23
3. The Flavour of Beef ................................................. 27
3.1 Introduction ............................................................... 27
3.2 Taste-Active Compounds ......................................... 27
3.3 Flavour Enhancers ................................................... 28
3.4 Aroma Components .................................................. 28
3.4.1 Effect of Heat on Sugars and/or Amino
Acids ........................................................ 30
3.4.2 Reactions of Hydroxyfuranones ................ 41
3.4.3 Thermal Degradation of Thiamine ............ 44
3.4.4 Lipid Oxidation/Degradation ..................... 47
3.4.5 Selected Aroma Components of High
Sensory Significance ................................ 52
3.5 Conclusions .............................................................. 55
References ........................................................................... 56
4. The Flavour of Pork ................................................ 61
4.1 Introduction ............................................................... 61
4.2 Precursors and Flavour Compounds in Pork ........... 61
4.3 Major Pathways to Generate Pork Flavour .............. 63
4.3.1 Lipid Degradation ..................................... 63
4.3.2 Maillard Reaction ..................................... 68
4.3.3 Interaction of Maillard Reaction with
Lipids ....................................................... 71
4.3.4 Thiamine Degradation .............................. 72
4.3.5 Reactions to Form Polysulphides in
Roasted Pork ........................................... 73
4.4 Recently Identified Pork Flavour Compounds
and Their Sensory Properties ................................... 74
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Contents xiii
4.5 Factors Affecting Pork Flavour ................................. 75
4.5.1 Composition of Pork Meat ........................ 78
4.5.2 Additives and Processing ......................... 79
References ........................................................................... 81
5. The Flavour of Poultry Meat ................................... 84
5.1 Introduction ............................................................... 84
5.2 Primary Odorants of Chicken Broth ......................... 84
5.3 Sulphur-Containing Compounds in Chicken
Flavours .................................................................... 84
5.4 Aldehyde Compounds in Chicken Flavour ............... 89
5.5 Heterocyclic Compounds in Chicken Flavours ........ 91
5.5.1 Pyrazines ................................................. 91
5.5.2 Pyridines .................................................. 92
5.5.3 Pyrroles .................................................... 93
5.5.4 Thiazoles .................................................. 94
5.6 Duck and Turkey Flavour ......................................... 95
5.7 Conclusions .............................................................. 97
References ........................................................................... 98
6. Sheepmeat Odour and Flavour .............................. 101
6.1 Introduction ............................................................... 101
6.2 Assessment of Sheepmeat Odour and Flavour
by Sensory Panels and Chemical Analysis ............. 102
6.3 the Tissue Source of Mutton Odour and Flavour ..... 103
6.4 Chemical Components Involved in Sheepmeat
Odour and Flavour .................................................... 105
6.4.1 Fat Oxidation Products ............................. 105
6.4.2 Branched-Chain Fatty Acids ..................... 106
6.4.3 Phenols .................................................... 108
6.4.4 Basic Compounds .................................... 110
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6.4.5 Sulphur-Containing Compounds ............... 111
6.5 Factors Affecting Sheepmeat Odour and
Flavour ...................................................................... 112
6.5.1 Pre-Slaughter Factors .............................. 112
6.5.2 Post-Slaughter Factors ............................. 120
6.6 Concluding Remarks ................................................ 124
References ........................................................................... 125
7. Flavour of Fish Meat ............................................... 131
7.1 Introduction ............................................................... 131
7.2 Very Fresh Fish Aromas ........................................... 131
7.2.1 Carbonyls and Alcohols ............................ 131
7.2.2 Sulphur Compounds ................................. 134
7.2.3 Bromophenols .......................................... 135
7.2.4 Hydrocarbons ........................................... 136
7.3 Species-Specific Characteristic Aromas .................. 136
7.3.1 Canned Tuna ........................................... 136
7.3.2 Salmon ..................................................... 137
7.3.3 Sweet Smelt ............................................. 137
7.4 Derived or Process-Induced Flavours ...................... 137
7.4.1 Canning .................................................... 137
7.4.2 Dried and Salted Fish ............................... 137
7.4.3 Smoked Fish ............................................ 138
7.4.4 Pickled Fish .............................................. 138
7.4.5 Fermented Fish ........................................ 138
7.4.6 Cooking .................................................... 139
7.5 Deteriorated Fish Odours ......................................... 140
7.5.1 Trimethylamine and Related
Compounds .............................................. 140
7.5.2 Autoxidation ............................................. 141
7.5.3 (Z)-4-Heptenal .......................................... 141
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