Flash Lamp Annealing: From Basics to Applications

304 Pages·2019·12.943 MB·English

by  Lars Rebohle, Slawomir Prucnal, Denise Reichel

Springer Series in Materials Science 288
Lars Rebohle
Slawomir Prucnal
Denise Reichel
Flash Lamp
Annealing
From Basics to Applications
Springer Series in Materials Science
Volume 288
Series Editors
Robert Hull, Center for Materials, Devices, and Integrated Systems,
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, NY, USA
ChennupatiJagadish,ResearchSchoolofPhysical,AustralianNationalUniversity,
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Yoshiyuki Kawazoe, Center for Computational Materials, Tohoku University,
Sendai, Japan
Richard M. Osgood, Department of Electrical Engineering, Columbia University,
New York, USA
Jürgen Parisi, Universität Oldenburg, Oldenburg, Germany
Udo W. Pohl, Institute of Solid State Physics, Technical University of Berlin,
Berlin, Germany
Tae-Yeon Seong, Department of Materials Science & Engineering,
Korea University, Seoul, Korea (Republic of)
Shin-ichi Uchida, Electronics and Manufacturing, National Institute of Advanced
Industrial Science and Technology, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan
Zhiming M. Wang, Institute of Fundamental and Frontier Sciences - Electronic,
University of Electronic Science and Technology of China, Chengdu, China
Jamie Kruzic, School of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering, UNSW
Sydney, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Lars Rebohle Slawomir Prucnal
(cid:129) (cid:129)
Denise Reichel
Flash Lamp Annealing
From Basics to Applications
123
LarsRebohle Slawomir Prucnal
Institute of Ion BeamPhysics Institute of Ion BeamPhysics
andMaterials Research andMaterials Research
Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden Rossendorf
Dresden,Germany Dresden,Germany
Denise Reichel
AKADUniversity
Stuttgart, Germany
ISSN 0933-033X ISSN 2196-2812 (electronic)
SpringerSeries inMaterials Science
ISBN978-3-030-23298-6 ISBN978-3-030-23299-3 (eBook)
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Preface
The idea to write a book about flash lamp annealing (FLA) was born when we
collected material for recent review papers [1–3]. It appeared that on the one hand
sufficient information is available in different publications, but that on the other
handacomprehensivepresentationofthetopicisstillmissing.Forexample,details
aboutflashlampscanbefoundintheliteraturededicatedtotechnicalissuesoflaser
technologyortoplasmaphysics,butwithouttheaspectofannealing.FLAemerged
first in the field of semiconductor science and technology with the aim to reduce
diffusion and segregation of dopants. The proceedings of the International
Conference on Advanced Thermal Processing of Semiconductors have been a
valuable source of information for a long time, but unfortunately, the conference
was discontinued in 2010. A first review about the aspects of subsecond thermal
processing of advanced materials in book form was published in 2014 which was
basically a collection of extended papers presented at a workshop in Dresden in
2011 [4]. However, in recent times, new user communities have been developed
witharatherlimitedexchangeofideasamongeachother.Inthefieldofprintedand
flexible electronics, FLA is called intense pulsed light processing, flashlight sin-
tering or photonic curing. The main motivation here is the possibility to treat
temperature-sensible substrates like plastic foils and to use short process times
which meet the requirements of roll-to-roll applications very well. Another com-
munityusesFLAtoannealthinfilmsonglass,mainlyforphotovoltaicsanddisplay
applications. Possibly, the latest development is flash-assisted deposition where
FLA serves as a suitable method for in situ annealing.
Most of the users have a pragmatic approach to FLA as a valuable tool.
However, FLA differs in several aspects from conventional annealing like furnace
orrapidthermalannealingwhichsometimes givesrisetounexpectedresults: (1) it
is not performed in thermal equilibrium, (2) there are steep temperature gradients,
(3) the resulting temperature profile strongly depends on the material system, and
(4)temperaturemeasurementischallengingduetotheveryshortprocessingtimes.
v
vi Preface
However, the non-equilibrium approach has several advantages: it allows the
treatment of temperature-sensible substrates, it allows specific dynamic processes
likeexplosivecrystallizationorhyperdoping,anditsuppressesunwantedprocesses
like diffusion or segregation. In addition, it saves energy, costs and process time,
anditissuitableforroll-to-rollapplications.Thebookisaddressedtoreaderswho
alreadyorpotentiallyuseFLA,toengineersandscientistswhodealwithmaterials
where FLA might be an option or simply to all who are interested in the thermo-
dynamics of materials on the subsecond timescale.
To doso,thebookisdivided intotwoparts.Inthe first part, Chap.2addresses
various aspects of FLA including a brief introduction to short-time annealing, the
physical background, the structure and functionality of individual components as
well as the configuration of FLA tools. Chapter 3 illuminates different facets of
process management such as temperature determination, homogeneity or thermal
stress minimization. The second part gives an overview of the different fields of
materials science in which FLA is engaged (Chaps. 4 and 5). This overview is
based on a literature search which intrinsically tends to be imperfect: the result
depends on topicality and completeness of literature data banks, on the keywords
used to describe a specific topic and on the definition of FLA compared to other
flash lamp applications. Nevertheless, we hope that this book can give a compre-
hensiveoverview,helpstogetfamiliarwiththetopicandmaystimulateoneorthe
other (or better: many) novel and interesting idea(s).
Acknowledgements
The book strongly profits from decade-long experience and research with FLA
which began already around 1980 at the former Zentralinstitut für Kernforschung,
now Helmholtz-Zentrum Dresden-Rossendorf. Since this time, numerous col-
leagueshavecontributedtothefield,andwestronglywanttoacknowledgealltheir
valuable work. Thereby, special thanks go to Wolfgang Skorupa who safely nav-
igatedFLAthroughthetumultuoustimesofpoliticalchangesafter1989uptonow
and who made it to a unique feature of our division, the Institute of Ion Beam
PhysicsandMaterialResearch.WealsoexpressourthankstoSpringer-Verlagwho
gaveusthepossibilitytowritethisbookandneededsomepatiencebeforethebook
could be successfully completed.
Dresden, Germany Lars Rebohle
Dresden, Germany Slawomir Prucnal
Stuttgart, Germany Denise Reichel
Preface vii
References
1. L.Rebohle,S.Prucnal,W.Skorupa,Areviewofthermalprocessinginthesubsecondrange:
semiconductors andbeyond.Semicond.Sci.Technol.31(10)(2016).https://doi.org/10.1088/
0268-1242/31/10/103001
2. S.Prucnal,L.Rebohle,W.Skorupa,Dopingbyflashlampannealing.Mater.Sci.Semicond.
Process.62,115–127(2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mssp.2016.10.040
3. W.Skorupa,T.Schumann,L.Rebohle,Millisecondthermalprocessingusingflashlampsfor
the advancement of thin layers and functional coatings. Surf. Coat. Technol. 314, 169–176
(2017).https://doi.org/10.1016/j.surfcoat.2016.08.010
4. W.SkorupaandHSchmidt (eds.),in SubsecondAnnealingofAdvancedMaterials,Springer
SeriesinMater.Science,vol.192(Springer,Cham,Heidelberg,2014)
Contents
1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 Historical Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 The Thermal Cycle. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.3 Short Time Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2 The Technology of Flash Lamp Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Basic Structure of an FLA Tool . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.2 Components of a Flash Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2.1 Dimensions and Gas Filling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.2 Electrodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.2.3 The Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.2.4 Cooling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.3 Plasma Discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.1 Trigger Pulse and Initial Streamer Formation. . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3.2 Arc Expansion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.3.3 Plasma Properties in the Wall-Stabilized Regime. . . . . . . . 31
2.3.4 The Post-discharge Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Electric Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.1 Electric Characteristics of a Flash Lamp . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
2.4.2 Circuitries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
2.4.3 Modelling of a Single RLC Section Circuit. . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.4.4 Active Pulse Shaping. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.5 Optical Output . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5.1 The Plasma Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5.2 Transparency and Radiation Pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5.3 Time-Resolved Optical Properties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
2.5.4 Shaping the Spectral Output. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
ix
x Contents
2.6 Flash Lamp Lifetime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.1 Single and Multiple Flash Operation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.6.2 Lamp Failure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.6.3 Lamp Degradation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
2.7 Layout of FLA Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
2.7.1 From Sheet-to-Sheet to Roll-to-Roll Processes. . . . . . . . . . 62
2.7.2 Flash-Assisted Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3 Process Management. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1 Temperature Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.1.1 Pyrometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.1.2 Temperature Measurement of Semiconductors. . . . . . . . . . 74
3.1.3 Temperature Measurement During Annealing
of Non-semiconductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.1.4 True Temperature Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.2 Temperature Simulations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.1 Mathematical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
3.2.2 Chamber Wall Reflection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
3.2.3 Temperature Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.2.4 Heat Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.3 Homogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.1 The Homogeneity of Irradiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.3.2 Pattern Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.4 Thermal Stress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.1 Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.4.2 Glassy Substrates and Thin Films. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.5 Further Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
4 Semiconductor Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1 Defect Engineering. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1.1 Defect Evolution During Annealing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
4.1.2 Boron Diffusion in Si. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
4.1.3 Studies Related to Flash Lamp Annealing. . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
4.2 Doping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.1 Ultra-Shallow Junctions in Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
4.2.2 Hyperdoping in Silicon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
4.2.3 Doping and Superconductivity in Germanium . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.2.4 Doping of Silicon Carbide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
4.2.5 Doping of III–V Compound Semiconductors. . . . . . . . . . . 168
4.2.6 Diluted Magnetic Semiconductors. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174