Table Of ContentF L
IRST ADIES
A B D
IOGRAPHICAL ICTIONARY
. ,
•
Third Edition
Dorothy Schneider
Carl J. Schneider
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First Ladies: A Biographical Dictionary, Third Edition
Copyright © 2010, 2005, 2001 by Dorothy Schneider and Carl J. Schneider
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Schneider, Dorothy.
First ladies : a biographical dictionary / Dorothy Schneider, Carl J. Schneider—
3rd ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8160-7724-3 (hc : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4381-2750-7 (e-book) 1.
Presidents’ spouses—United States—Biography—Dictionaries. I. Schneider, Carl J. II.
Title.
E176.2.S36 2010
973.09'9—dc22 2009009047
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Book printed and bound by Maple Press, York, PA
Date printed: January 2010
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C
ONTENTS
Introduction to the Third Mamie Geneva Doud
Edition iv Eisenhower 261
Jacqueline Lee (Jackie) Bouvier
Preface xii
Kennedy 271
Martha Dandridge Custis
Claudia Alta Taylor (Lady Bird)
Washington 1
Johnson 280
Abigail Smith Adams 11
Thelma Catherine (Pat) Ryan
Dolley Payne Todd Madison 23
Nixon 292
Elizabeth Kortright Monroe 35
Elizabeth Ann (Betty) Bloomer
Louisa Catherine Johnson Adams 42
Warren Ford 301
Anna Tuthill Symmes Harrison 53
Eleanor Rosalynn Smith Carter 309
Letitia Christian Tyler 58
Anne Francis (Nancy) Robbins
Julia Gardiner Tyler 62 Davis Reagan 319
Sarah Childress Polk 70 Barbara Pierce Bush 329
Margaret Mackall Smith Taylor 79 Hillary Rodham Clinton 339
Abigail Powers Fillmore 83 Laura Welch Bush 353
Jane Means Appleton Pierce 88 Michelle LaVaughn Robinson
Mary Ann Todd Lincoln 95 Obama 367
Eliza McCardle Johnson 107 Appendix A:
Julia Dent Grant 112
Presidential Spouses Who
Lucy Ware Webb Hayes 124
Did Not Live to Be First
Lucretia Rudolph Garfi eld 133 Ladies 381
Frances (Frank) Folsom Appendix B:
Cleveland 139
White House Hostesses 387
Caroline (Carrie) Lavinia Scott
Appendix C:
Harrison 147
Ida Saxton McKinley 155 First Lady Firsts 395
Edith Kermit Carow Roosevelt 162 Appendix D:
Helen (Nellie) Herron Taft 172 First Ladies’ Refl ections on the
Ellen Louise Axson Wilson 182 Position and on Other First
Edith Bolling Galt Wilson 190 Ladies 399
Florence Mabel Kling Harding 201 Bibliography 407
Grace Anna Goodhue Coolidge 211 Entries by Place of Birth 417
Lou Henry Hoover 220
Entries by Birth Dates 419
Anna Eleanor Roosevelt
Index 421
Roosevelt 230
Elizabeth (Bess) Virginia Wallace
Truman 250
iii
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I
NTRODUCTION TO
T E
THE HIRD DITION
In 2008 American voters elected their fi rst play The First Lady in the Land popularized it.
multiracial president, son of a white mother It is long since outmoded, and many a presiden-
and a black father. Barack Obama, their choice, tial spouse has detested it, but so far no one has
envisioned a postracial society, offering the thought of anything better.
nation hope of at long last putting behind us Ceremonial, social, and of course familial
the racial enmities that have bedeviled us and duties remained the major responsibilities of
scarred our history. Michelle Obama is a pro- president’s wives, and the measure of their suc-
fessional woman as intelligent, highly educated, cess, for well over a century. Thus, the enor-
and high-achieving as her husband. mous popularity of Dolley Madison, who
With Barack Obama’s election, curiosity reveled warmheartedly in these duties, and the
ran high about the choices Michelle Obama criticism of Abigail Adams by her contempo-
would make in the ill-defi ned, semiprofessional raries because she preferred “meddling” in poli-
role of fi rst lady. From the beginning, public tics. Nonetheless, the country was fortunate in
expectations have infl uenced the conduct of its fi rst fi ve presidential wives. The traditions in
presidential spouses, limiting their freedom and which they had been raised and their earlier
their privacy. In the early days of the republic, experiences taught them the importance and
Americans worried lest European courts not dignity of the position thrust upon them.
recognize the dignity of the new nation as But after Louisa Adams departed in 1841,
embodied in its president and his wife. Most a different breed of women succeeded to the
did not want the Washingtons to ape European position. The young democracy now brought
court manners but felt that they must adopt a to the White House several women with no
degree of formality to impress on Europeans particular gift or preparation for the post, from
the status of the new nation. The president’s families with no tradition of public service.
constitutional role as not only head of govern- They were not born or reared in ways that pre-
ment but also chief of state meant that Martha pared them for the position. They lacked the
Washington must show herself as not only the social status and experience of the world that
wife of a chief executive but also the equal of a helped the earliest fi rst ladies mold the offi ce
queen. In fact, the expectations of her were into one of prestige.
almost entirely ceremonial and social, like those Some simply withdrew into the shadows of
of a royal consort. the White House: “[O]f the eighteen presidents
People worried about her title. Should she who preceded Hayes,” historian Emily Apt
be called Lady Washington? Presidentress? Even Geer notes, “only eight had wives willing and
in the 21st century no one has satisfactorily able to assume the responsibilities of a White
answered that question. Although the term fi rst House hostess for their husbands’ full term.”
lady was occasionally applied to such White With notable exceptions, like the strong-willed
House occupants as Dolley Madison, President and ambitious Mary Todd Lincoln and Julia
Buchanan’s niece Harriet Lane, and Mary Todd Grant, they shied away from their destinies.
Lincoln, it did not come into consistent use Some were terrifi ed because they lacked social
until the days of Lucy Hayes, becoming wide- experience. From 1841 to 1861, fi ve fi rst ladies
spread only in 1911 when Charles Nirdlinger’s balked at these obligations. Margaret Taylor
iv
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and Jane Pierce prayed fervently that their hus- soon after their terms ended. Perhaps worst of
bands would lose the presidential election. all, fi rst ladies have to live with the possibility of
Anna Harrison doubted her own qualifi cations. assassination: Four presidents have been killed
Letitia Tyler and Margaret Taylor were too ill, by an assassin’s bullet; additionally, Theodore
and Jane Pierce too grief-stricken to function. Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan were wounded,
Their reluctance is understandable. Most Reagan gravely, and would-be assassins shot at
presidents’ spouses have arrived in the White but missed Franklin Roosevelt, Harry Truman,
House in their fi fties. In the 18th and well into and Gerald Ford.
the 19th centuries that was old age, and the Since the Civil War the social and ceremo-
fi rst ladies of the two decades immediately nial duties of the fi rst lady have multiplied—
before the Civil War were often worn out by even so activist a woman as Lady Bird Johnson
lifetimes of hardships, of illnesses that the med- estimated that she spent 75 percent of her time
icine of the time could not treat, and of bearing on them. Gradually, moreover, other obliga-
children only to watch many of them die in an tions have been added, usually developing out
era when most newborns had no better than a of changes in the status of American women as
50 percent chance of survival. In the White they assumed more and more responsibility for
House the peaceful last years to which they had the public weal. At fi rst restricted to the public
looked forward were denied them. duty of raising good citizens for the Republic,
The work of the fi rst lady requires both during the Civil War American women took
physical and psychological stamina. Such was over “men’s jobs” and undertook major respon-
the lack of knowledge of medicine and psychol- sibilities for the troops, raising money and
ogy that doctors were at least as likely to harm goods for the Sanitary Commission entrusted
as to help. Mystifi cation about women’s repro- with the soldiers’ medical care, nursing the sick
ductive systems encouraged the belief that and wounded, hunting for the missing and
women were sickly by nature and must avoid identifying the dead, and transporting the dis-
too much study and physical exercise. The cul- abled back home. During the mid- and late
tural restrictions that limited women to one 19th century, women battled for their maternal
role regardless of temperament and ability property and voting rights and left their homes
inhibited some women and frustrated others. to enter the workplace. In the Progressive Era
Although religion consoled some, in the harsh they undertook “public housekeeping” to effect
form of Calvinism it depressed others. Only a social and economic reforms, particularly to
sensible woman whose genes had endowed her protect children and women in the workplace.
with a healthy body could endure the tensions In 1919, after a struggle of 71 years, they gained
and constraints of ordinary life, let alone those the right to vote. During the fi rst half of the
imposed by life in the White House. 20th century, they enabled the nation to win
With good reason, presidential spouses two world wars by taking jobs on the home
dreaded the attacks of political enemies. From front and joining the military. And in the latter
the days of George Washington, their enemies half of the 20th century and as the 21st century
have fl ung at presidents and their families any began, they served in local, state, and national
and all of the nastiest accusations they could governments and fought in the legislatures and
concoct: suicide, murder, infi delity, siring bas- in the courts for the civil rights of women and
tards, being of mixed blood, insanity, and children. The United States still is learning its
homosexuality. First ladies also feared for their need for women in the public as well as the pri-
husbands the stress that has aged and trauma- vate spheres.
tized so many American presidents: Four of the Such changes in the work and status of
42 have died in offi ce of “natural causes,” and women inevitably changed and increased expec-
Woodrow Wilson and Lyndon Johnson died tations of the fi rst lady. Just as Hillary Clinton,
Introduction v
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Laura Bush, and Michelle Obama brought to Grace Coolidge, and Lou Hoover more openly
the offi ce vastly different experiences than those promoted their favorite projects—slum clear-
of Martha Washington, so the offi ce demanded ance, the education of the deaf, and the Girl
of them vastly different abilities and efforts. Scouts, respectively—out of personal concern.
Early on it became apparent that the popu- At the same time, fi rst ladies began to share
lar wife of a president might help elect him, and presidential powers, acting as the president’s
in 1808 and 1812 James Madison’s opponents surrogate not only on social and ceremonial
claimed that they had to run against both the occasions but also in political and executive
Madisons. By the middle of the 19th century, affairs. The accident of Woodrow Wilson’s inca-
politicians began to recognize that even a fi rst pacity in 1919 thrust executive power into
lady with little interest in politics and policies Edith Wilson’s hands, and she wielded it with
could make enemies and win friends for her little restraint.
husband, and some fi rst ladies, like Lucy Hayes, Beginning in 1932, Eleanor Roosevelt
proved themselves skilled though retiring cam- widened the scope and the potential of the
paigners. As in the latter years of that century, offi ce of fi rst lady almost beyond recognition.
women’s reform efforts made it acceptable for Her husband’s inability to walk necessitated
women to appear in public on the public busi- that she become his eyes and ears, traveling
ness. As women’s health, energy, and education widely, meeting all sorts of Americans, inspect-
improved, and as campaigns lengthened and ing the programs he initiated, and reporting to
“front-porch campaigns” became popular, the him the state of the nation. Moreover, she also
services of candidates’ wives were sought to win initiated her own programs, publicly differed
votes. They were expected to be on display as with her husband, and openly tried to infl u-
model wives and mothers, traveling with their ence policy and get women important appoint-
husbands. By 1888 Caroline Harrison was ments in government. She used her position as
complaining, “If there is one thing above a bully pulpit, fully utilizing the press and the
another I detest and have detested all my days new medium of radio to publicize the needs
it is being made a circus of, and that is what has she identifi ed and the causes she supported.
come to me in my old age, as it were.” During World War II she even experimented—
With the development of modern commu- unsuccessfully—with holding a full-time gov-
nications, the public called for even more infor- ernmental position, as assistant to Fiorello
mation about these women, and their privacy LaGuardia in the Offi ce of Civil Defense. In all
ebbed still further. In the fi rst quarter of the this, Franklin Roosevelt fully supported her.
20th century, this trend continued, so that Supremely self-confi dent, he did not fear her
Edith Roosevelt, Helen Taft, Ellen and Edith strength or even her opposition. “She’s my
Wilson, Florence Harding, Grace Coolidge, missus. What can I do?” he shrugged to the
and Lou Hoover were well accustomed to the press, while privately encouraging her to pur-
spotlight. Indeed by their time, as Lisa M. sue her own course and send up trial balloons
Burns has pointed out in her First Ladies and for his policies.
the Fourth Estate, the press was already a force Her immediate successors could not match
in shaping their offi ce. her energy, her political acumen, or her ambi-
Additionally, enabled by the changes in the tion. Bess Truman exercised a great deal of
status of women of the Progressive Era, fi rst infl uence on affairs of state, but only in private.
ladies were beginning to exercise new powers. Mamie Eisenhower confi ned herself mainly to
In the late 19th century, the young college social and familial activities. But once any fi rst
graduate Frances Cleveland had quietly assisted lady has broadened her responsibilities—often
the causes of working women and women’s to the tune of denunciations from political
education. Beginning in 1913, Ellen Wilson, opponents—successors are legitimated in
vi First Ladies
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assuming them, and sometimes even obliged to when her husband was incapacitated only
assume them. because almost from the time they met he had
Over the course of the 20th century, espe- made her privy to his problems and his ideas
cially since the 1960s, the public grew to expect about how to handle them. Harding went as far
the fi rst lady to sponsor some specifi c cause, an as she dared to infl uence appointments and
obligation that grew naturally from the seeds policy decisions. Roosevelt exercised broad
planted by Ellen Wilson, and fl ourished, as infl uence in these areas—and tried for more.
James S. Rosebush has pointed out, because Johnson’s husband relied on her political advice
Americans try to alleviate societal ills by volun- and consulted with her on such “women’s
teering and because so many of those ills are issues” as education and the environment.
regarded as “women’s problems.” At the behest Rosalynn Carter attended cabinet meetings and
of presidential advisers and public relations represented her husband at high-level policy
experts, Pat Nixon chose volunteerism (and on meetings abroad. He carried a step farther a
her own quietly supported women’s rights), practice of Presidents Franklin Roosevelt, Ken-
Nancy Reagan campaigned against the use of nedy, and Nixon in sending their wives overseas
drugs, and Barbara Bush sponsored family lit- on goodwill trips.
eracy. Jackie Kennedy, Lady Bird Johnson, However, any practices seen as the fi rst
Betty Ford, Rosalynn Carter, and Laura Bush lady’s invading offi cial territory remain contro-
acted spontaneously. Kennedy’s interest in the versial. As Bill and Hillary Clinton discovered
arts transformed the White House physically when he put her in charge of reforming the
and culturally. Johnson’s work for the environ- health care system, both offi cialdom and the
ment developed out of her childhood love of public fear interference in government by a per-
wildfl owers. Ford coped with her own bouts son who is not elected and is responsible only to
with breast cancer and addiction by publicizing her husband. The more open her infl uence, the
their prevention and cure. Carter continued the more criticism. The more she denies and con-
efforts for mental health that she had been ceals it, the greater her acceptance in her own
making ever since her husband served as gover- time.
nor of Georgia. Similarly, Hillary Clinton and As a result of the choices her predecessors
Laura Bush multiplied their endeavors on the have made and of the changes in the lifestyles
projects they had undertaken as governor’s of American women, the fi rst lady now is con-
wives, Clinton for children’s rights and Bush fronted by scores of duties, some old, some
for the improvement of education. Naturally, new. She must look after the health and morale
the most effective advocates have been those of her family, under conditions that expose
women who embraced their causes long before them and her to extreme stress and unwanted
they moved into the White House. But all their publicity. She must entertain multitudes of
work has benefi ted the nation, and by and large strangers and attend a host of ceremonies. She
the public has appreciated it—at least after the and her staff must respond to thousands of let-
fact. Yet a fi rst lady who wants to avoid criticism ters requesting favors and help or beseeching
and opposition is still well advised to choose a her to make a speech or sponsor a cause. She
non-controversial cause that the public regards must look after the appearance of the White
as within the “women’s sphere.” House and its furnishings. She must learn
These projects, though, represent only a what the government pays for, what expenses
fraction of the fi rst lady’s work, which contin- are charged to the president, what gifts she
ues to increase. Edith Wilson, Florence Hard- can legally and ethically accept, and how to
ing, Eleanor Roosevelt, Lady Bird Johnson, dispose of the many she is barred from accept-
and Rosalynn Carter pioneered as partners with ing or cannot use without hurting the feelings
their husbands. Wilson was enabled to take over of the donors. She must learn to manage
Introduction vii
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relations with the press, who often consider other factors beyond their control: the fi rst
themselves entitled to every scrap of informa- lady’s age and training; her husband’s attitude
tion about her family, however personal; yet toward her participation in his work; and the
she must guard her tongue, for she will be social and historical environment of her time,
assumed to be refl ecting the president’s opin- particularly as to the status of women. “You
ions or to be speaking out of insider knowl- cannot change,” Kati Marton observes, “with-
edge. She will be expected to choose a project, out shocking and offending.” Even more than
to publicize it, and probably to raise money for other women, a fi rst lady can transgress the
it—and the president’s advisers will urge that conventional boundaries on women’s conduct
it not be controversial. Party politicians and just so far before arousing such storms of criti-
her husband’s staff will push her to campaign cism as to render her ineffective and possibly,
for him and other candidates; to travel, with though no one is sure, damage her husband’s
or without him; and on occasion to represent political future. Attitudes toward what is per-
him. American business will want her to adver- missible for the fi rst lady usually lag behind
tise its products by wearing and using them. contemporary standards for women. In their
This daunting, more than full-time job she is own time, fi rst ladies who concentrated on fam-
expected to do without pay, cheerfully and ily and social duties have been highly regarded,
pleasantly, and often under the fi re of but history has judged them quite differently,
criticism. with more independent and activist fi rst ladies
Fortunately, she will have good, though moving up over time. Eleanor Roosevelt, who
not unlimited help. She can rely on the expe- some criticized in her own day, now by a wide
rienced staff of the White House and the pro- margin tops every list. The public, it seems,
tocol experts to run formal dinners and does not know what it likes or what it wants—
receptions. If she chooses, she can leave menu at least until after a fi rst lady, often at brutal
planning and household details to the house- personal cost, has accustomed it to a particular
keeper and kitchen personnel. She can be sure change.
that hairdressers will willingly come to her Clearly any fi rst lady faces multiple prob-
and that stores will happily send merchandise lems common to all wives but accentuated by
for her inspection. Depending on her own the prominence of her position. “The key atti-
preferences, she can delegate many tasks to her tude is public deference to her husband, private
personal staff of 30 or so, which will include loyalty, and modest refusal to take any credit
experts in social affairs, press relations, and for his brilliant success,” writes journalist Susan
public issues. Riley. “For the intelligent wife, this requires a
Nonetheless she must budget her time to daily display of diplomacy that borders on out-
ensure that essential duties are not given short right fraud. A lot of these women are smarter
shrift and that she can retain a few hours a day than their husbands. She has to be innocuous
for what she considers her most important without being inane, which as all modern
work. Unless she deliberately sets goals and pri- examples prove, is impossible.” These Victorian
orities, she will fritter away a glorious opportu- demands punish modern women. At least the
nity to make a difference to the nation and to Victorian woman could enjoy privacy and lei-
promote those projects that, in the words of sure, both luxuries denied today’s fi rst lady. If
Lady Bird Johnson, “make her heart sing.” her baby or her parent dies, the public expects
The offi ce of fi rst lady as it now exists has her to curtail her grief and carry on. The media
been created in part by the choices made by the expose her failings, her moods, her marital rela-
38 holders of that position. As a scholar of fi rst tionship, and even her pain at the criticism of
ladies and a professor of communication, Myra herself and those she loves. They allow only the
Gutin has noted, it has also been affected by narrowest of margins for error.
viii First Ladies
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She is indeed on the horns of a dilemma. At tion with assistance provided by such spouse to
the beginning of the 21st century, with the the President in the discharge of the President’s
nation still coming to terms with the multipli- duties and responsibilities,” it arguably implied
cation of women’s roles and choices in recent that in those instances the fi rst lady is serving as
history, a good deal of the criticism of the fi rst a federal offi cer. Furthermore, the services tra-
lady originates in disagreement among the pop- ditionally rendered by the fi rst lady, all unpaid,
ulace over what a woman ought to be and do. may clash with the Antidefi ciency Act, which
The fi rst lady has always been expected to per- requires statutory authority for federal agencies
sonify the ideal woman, but what is the Ameri- to accept voluntary services.
can ideal? The country no longer holds in As Wasserman comments, existing laws and
common a myth of what every woman should judicial decisions leave many questions about
be. The activist fi rst lady risks being considered the fi rst lady unanswered. For instance: Would
an aggressive threat by one part of the popula- it be illegal for the fi rst lady to accept a position
tion. The homebody may invoke criticism as an as lobbyist after leaving the White House?
irrelevant nonentity by another. Would it be illegal for her to accept a bribe to
The American people may also be facing a try to get corporate taxes reduced? Can the
new problem. Given what American women president fi re a fi rst lady? Can he appoint some-
today are thinking and saying and doing, given one else in her stead? Does or should her posi-
the development of marriages as equal partner- tion forbid the fi rst lady from earning money
ships, fi rst ladies may not go on indefi nitely from outside sources? If a fi rst lady has a career
accepting both the obligations and the limita- of her own, may she continue to advise the
tions that custom thrusts upon them. If a president on policies? Is she limited by federal
woman whose husband has been elected presi- confl ict-of-interest law prohibiting executive
dent chooses instead to continue her own branch offi cers from “participating in govern-
career, nothing in the Constitution deters her. ment decisions that affect their fi nancial inter-
Her husband cannot offer her an attractive est” or those of their spouses? Can she claim
alternative by appointing her to a signifi cant executive privilege, as Hillary Clinton did?
offi ce within his administration: So far the pub- Should the fi rst lady be paid? First ladies who
lic has condemned that option, even when the have spoken on the question have usually
position has been unpaid. rejected the idea, in favor of preserving their
Indeed, the question of whether the law options about their duties.
permits it is murky. As attorney Carl David As conceptions and expectations of women
Wasserman has observed in his note “Firing the change in the future, so will the offi ce of fi rst
First Lady” in the Vanderbilt Law Review of lady. That process will be dramatically speeded
May 1995, existing laws may affect the status of up when the fi rst woman is elected president.
the fi rst lady. For instance, the so-called Ken- Quite possibly, however, even before that hap-
nedy law, passed after President Kennedy made pens, events may force a more precise defi nition
his brother attorney general, forbids a public of the powers and duties of the president’s
offi cial to appoint or employ a relative, includ- spouse, particularly if fi rst ladies choose to pur-
ing his spouse, “in an agency in which he serves sue their own careers while their husbands are
or over which he exercises control.” However, in offi ce. Hillary Clinton did so when she ran
the District Court of the District of Columbia for a Senate seat from the State of New York in
in the American Physicians case held that the 1999 and 2000. Libby Dole, wife of the
president may appoint a relative as a White defeated Republican nominee for president in
House employee. Again, when Congress autho- 1996, and Teresa Heinz Kerry, wife of the
rized White House Offi ce employees to provide unsuccessful Democratic candidate in 2004,
services to the president’s spouse “in connec- both stated during their husbands’ campaigns
Introduction ix
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