Table Of ContentFire-Resistant Design of
Structures
This book addresses the detailed analysis and design of structures under fire loads
through the basic concepts. While fire and explosion characteristics of materials are
discussed in detail, an estimate of fire load and integration to fire-resistant design
is the main focus. The detailed design procedures include practical examples of
various design codes from around the world. The scope of Fire-Resistant Design
of Structures includes discussions related to the estimate of fire loads, analysis and
design of structural members under fire, fire protection and firefighting systems,
working principles, and suitability for various industrial applications. It provides
comprehensive coverage regarding the analysis and design of structural systems
under fire loads, in particular, and under elevated temperatures, in general.
Features:
• Provides an understanding of fire loads, analysis, and design of various
structural members
• Includes detailed design methods and model studies
• Covers in detail different types of firefighting equipment and their functions
and applications
Fire-Resistant Design of
Structures
Srinivasan Chandrasekaran and Gaurav Srivastava
MATLAB is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks
does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion
of MATLAB software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by
The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB software.
Cover Image Credit: Cover image supplied by Gaurav Srivastava
First edition published 2023
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Chandrasekaran, Srinivasan, author. | Srivastava, Gaurav, author.
Title: Fire-resistant design of structures / Srinivasan Chandrasekaran and Gaurav Srivastava.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, 2023. | Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2022036365 (print) | LCCN 2022036366 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032358116 (hbk) |
ISBN 9781032358123 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003328711 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Building, Fireproof.
Classification: LCC TH1065 .C44 2023 (print) | LCC TH1065 (ebook) | DDC 693.8/2–dc23/eng/20221012
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036365
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2022036366
ISBN: 978-1-032-35811-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-35812-3 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-32871-1 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003328711
Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.......................................................................................................................ix
Authors ......................................................................................................................xi
Contributor ..............................................................................................................xiii
Chapter 1 Fire and Explosion ................................................................................1
Summary ..............................................................................................1
1.1 Category and Classification .......................................................1
1.2 Pool Fire ....................................................................................2
1.3 Jet Fire .......................................................................................7
1.4 Fireball......................................................................................10
1.5 Flash Fire ..................................................................................11
1.6 Explosion ..................................................................................11
1.7 Explosion Classifications ..........................................................14
1.7.1 Vapor Cloud Explosion (VCE) ....................................14
1.7.2 Pressure Vessel Explosion (PVE) ................................15
1.7.3 Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor
Explosion (BLEVE) ....................................................16
1.7.4 Condensed-Phase Explosion (CPE) ............................23
1.7.5 Dust Explosion ...........................................................24
1.8 Fire and Explosion Characteristics ..........................................25
1.8.1 Combustion.................................................................25
1.8.2 Ignition .......................................................................25
1.8.3 Autoignition Temperature (AIT) ................................25
1.8.4 Spontaneous Combustion ...........................................25
1.8.5 Flash Point ..................................................................26
1.8.6 Fire Point ....................................................................26
1.8.7 Flammability Limits ..................................................27
1.8.8 Limiting Oxygen Concentration .................................27
1.9 Flammability Diagram ............................................................30
1.9.1 Constructing Flammability Diagram .........................30
1.10 Damage Consequences of Fire and Explosion .........................32
Chapter 2 Material Properties ..............................................................................35
Summary ............................................................................................35
2.1 Introduction ..............................................................................35
2.2 Properties of Steel ....................................................................37
2.2.1 Carbon Steel and Alloying Elements ..........................39
2.3 Properties at High Temperature ...............................................39
2.4 Reinforcing Steel ......................................................................45
2.4.1 Mechanical Properties .................................................45
2.5 Concrete ...................................................................................49
v
vi Contents
2.5.1 Mechanical Properties ................................................49
2.5.2 Thermal Properties ......................................................52
2.6 Functionally Graded Materials ................................................56
2.6.1 FGM for High Temperature ........................................58
Chapter 3 Fire Design .........................................................................................63
Summary ............................................................................................63
3.1 Fire as a Hazard .......................................................................63
3.2 Development of a Fire .............................................................66
3.3 Fire Safety ................................................................................71
3.3.1 Objectives of Fire Safety .............................................71
3.3.1.1 Life Safety ...................................................71
3.3.1.2 Property Protection ......................................71
3.3.1.3 Environment Protection ...............................71
3.3.2 Scenario Analysis ........................................................71
3.3.3 Fire Safety Measures ...................................................74
3.3.4 Structural Fire Safety ..................................................75
3.4 Codes and Standards ................................................................76
3.5 Fire Behavior ............................................................................78
3.5.1 Fuels ............................................................................79
3.5.2 Calorific Value .............................................................79
3.5.3 Heat Release Rate .......................................................80
3.6 Fire Load ..................................................................................81
3.7 Fire Initiation and Flame Spread .............................................82
3.7.1 Phase Change and Decomposition .............................82
3.7.2 Fire Initiation ..............................................................82
3.7.3 Flame Spread ..............................................................83
3.8 Compartment Fires ..................................................................83
3.8.1 Pre-Flashover Fires ....................................................84
3.8.2 t2 Fire Model ..............................................................85
3.9 Energy and Burning Time .......................................................85
3.9.1 Pre-Flashover Fire Calculations .................................87
3.10 Flashover..................................................................................88
3.11 Post-Flashover Fires ................................................................89
3.12 Ventilation-Controlled Fire .....................................................89
3.12.1 Burning Rate ..............................................................90
3.12.2 Ventilation Factor ........................................................91
3.12.3 Effects of Multiple Openings ......................................91
3.13 Fuel-Controlled Fire ................................................................92
3.14 Time-Temperature Curves .......................................................93
3.14.1 Standard Fire ..............................................................93
3.15 Design Fires .............................................................................94
3.15.1 Constant Peak Temperature .......................................95
3.15.1.1 Published Curves ........................................96
3.16 Parametric Curves ...................................................................96
Contents vii
3.17 Burning Period ........................................................................97
3.17.1 Decay Rate .................................................................98
3.18 Time-Temperature Curves .......................................................98
3.19 Fire Resistance ......................................................................100
3.20 Equivalent Fire Severity .........................................................101
3.20.1 Area Equivalence ......................................................101
3.20.2 Maximum Temperature Equivalence ........................102
3.20.3 Minimum Load Capacity Equivalence .....................102
3.21 Thermodynamic Properties ....................................................103
3.21.1 Conduction ................................................................103
3.21.2 Convection .................................................................107
3.21.3 Radiation ...................................................................108
3.22 Transient Heat Transfer ..........................................................115
3.23 Boundary Conditions ..............................................................116
3.24 Lumped Capacity Idealization for Steel .................................118
3.25 Semi-Infinite Idealization for Concrete and Masonry ...........121
3.26 Structural Temperatures Under Standard Fire .......................125
3.26.1 Temperature Calculation for Steel
Structural Members ...................................................125
3.26.2 Temperature Calculation for Concrete
Structural Members ...................................................130
3.27 Design Theory – Limit States of Design ................................137
3.28 Tension Members ....................................................................139
3.29 Design for Flexure – Beams ...................................................144
3.29.1 Steel Beams ...............................................................144
3.29.2 Reinforced Concrete Beams ......................................151
3.30 Compression Members – Columns .........................................161
3.30.1 Steel Columns ...........................................................161
3.30.2 Reinforced Concrete Columns ..................................167
3.31 Slabs ........................................................................................173
Chapter 4 Fire Protection ...................................................................................177
Summary ..........................................................................................177
4.1 F ire Protection ........................................................................177
4.2 Active Fire Protection Systems ..............................................177
4.3 Passive Fire Protection Systems .............................................178
4.4 Case Studies............................................................................179
4.5 Station Nightclub, USA ..........................................................179
4.6 Grenfell Tower, London, UK ..................................................179
4.7 Plasco Building, Tehran, Iran .................................................180
4.7.1 Fire Development and Growth ..................................180
4.7.2 Structural Collapse ....................................................181
4.7.3 Important Observations .............................................181
4.8 Chennai Silks Building, Chennai, India .................................181
4.8.1 Building Description and Use ...................................182
viii Contents
4.8.2 Fire Protection ...........................................................182
4.8.3 Fire Development and Growth ..................................182
4.8.4 Structural Failure ......................................................182
4.8.5 Important Observations .............................................183
4.9 Takshashila Complex, Surat, India .........................................183
4.9.1 Building Description and Use ...................................183
4.9.2 Egress Arrangements ................................................183
4.9.3 Firefighting Access and Fire Protection Systems......184
4.9.4 Fire Growth and Development ..................................184
4.9.5 Effects on Occupants .................................................185
4.9.6 Important Observations .............................................185
References ..............................................................................................................187
Index .......................................................................................................................193
Preface
Fire Resistance Design of Structures covers the necessary domain of understand-
ing the structural design for fire. While the focus is mainly with respect to steel
structures, design examples of concrete members for fire resistance design are also
explained. The main strength of the book is the MATLAB codes, which can be used
to estimate the material characteristics under high temperatures. MATLAB codes are
useful to establish the necessary constituent properties of materials in the numerical
model for advanced research under fire loads. This book explains various examples
in a simple and illustrative manner, making it very convenient for self-learning even
to an undergraduate student. The presented material is useful for both academic and
research purposes, while consulting engineers will enjoy the design examples and
explanations. Design is carried out with respect to Indian and Eurocode, helping to
develop the necessary competency in subject domain. Four chapters, namely Fire
and Explosion, Material Properties, Fire Design, and Fire Protection, are carefully
grouped to ensure a continuous and consistent learning of the subject. The authors
are well-experienced academicians and practicing consultants, whose teaching skills
and consulting methods paved a classroom teaching material for the readers. Case
studies discussed in the last chapter are useful interpretations and help engineers to
gain important tips for fire protection.
The first chapter describes fire and explosion processes in detail, including empiri-
cal relationships that help implement various design practices that effectively address
the consequences of computing such loads. Numeric examples discussed in this chap-
ter help the learners understand the effects caused by fire and explosion. The flamma-
bility diagram presented in this chapter also helps to understand the avoidance of fire
based on managing the input that results in fire. This chapter assists in comprehensively
learning the subject in a simple, compact form. Material properties are crucial to inves-
tigating fire-resistant capacity and enabling an appropriate design technique. Although
many modern structural systems are designed to develop their capacity from geometric
form, material strength is inherent to achieving the desired capacity. In this chapter,
the mechanical properties of materials, namely steel, concrete, and functionally graded
materials, are discussed in detail. Material properties at elevated temperatures and
various parameters that influence the strength at high temperatures are presented to
enhance the understanding of the material behavior at high temperatures.
The third chapter discusses the key ideas behind the structural design for fire
including presenting a view of fire as a hazard, characterization of fire as a load,
temperature calculations, and structural design calculations. Some statistics related
to damages caused by fire are also included to emphasize the need of considering fire
as a load, although it is an accidental occurrence. It is to be noted that the probability
of occurrence of fire in a building is significantly greater than that of the building
experiencing a major earthquake during its design life. Hence, appropriate treat-
ment of fire scenarios in the design of structures should be mandatory. This chapter
reviews the basic concepts of combustion of fuel in building fires and provides a brief
idea about calorimetry used to determine the burning behavior of the fuel materials.
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