Table Of ContentFire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials
SOLID MECHANICS AND ITS APPLICATIONS
Volume 143
Series Editor: G.M.L. GLADWELL
Department of Civil Engineering
University of Waterloo
Waterloo, Ontario, Canada N2L 3GI
Aims and Scope of the Series
The fundamental questions arising in mechanics are: Why?, How?, and How much?
The aim of this series is to provide lucid accounts written by authoritative researchers
giving vision and insight in answering these questions on the subject of mechanics as it
relates to solids.
The scope of the series covers the entire spectrum of solid mechanics. Thus it includes
the foundation of mechanics; variational formulations; computational mechanics;
statics, kinematics and dynamics of rigid and elastic bodies: vibrations of solids and
structures; dynamical systems and chaos; the theories of elasticity, plasticity and
viscoelasticity; composite materials; rods, beams, shells and membranes; structural
control and stability; soils, rocks and geomechanics; fracture; tribology; experimental
mechanics; biomechanics and machine design.
The median level of presentation is the first year graduate student. Some texts are
monographs defining the current state of the field; others are accessible to final year
undergraduates; but essentially the emphasis is on readability and clarity.
For a list of related mechanics titles, see final pages.
Fire Properties of Polymer
Composite Materials
by
A.P. MOURITZ
RMIT University
and
CRC for Advanced Composite Structures
Melbourne, Victoria,
Australia
and
A.G. GIBSON
University of Newcastle-upon-Tyne
Centre for Composite Materials Engineering
England, UK
A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
ISBN-10 1-4020-5355-X (HB)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5355-9 (HB)
ISBN-10 1-4020-5356-8 (e-book)
ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5356-6 (e-book)
Published by Springer,
P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands.
www.springer.com
Printed on acid-free paper
All Rights Reserved
© 2006 Springer
No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted
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or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception
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Table of Contents
Preface ix
1 Introduction
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Fire reaction and fire resistance of composites 3
1.3 Composites and fire 5
1.4 Case studies of composites in fire 9
1.5 Concluding remarks 17
References 18
2 Thermal Decomposition of Composites in Fire
2.1 Introduction 19
2.2 Thermal decomposition mechanisms of organic polymers 20
2.3 Rate processes and characterisation of decomposition 23
2.4 Polymers and their decomposition processes 25
2.5 Fire damage to composites 47
2.6 Concluding remarks 55
References 56
3 Fire Reaction Properties of Composites
3.1 Introduction 59
3.2 Time-to-ignition 59
3.3 Heat release rate 72
3.4 Extinction flammability index & thermal stability index 79
3.5 Mass loss 81
3.6 Smoke 84
3.7 Smoke toxicity 88
3.8 Limiting oxygen index 90
3.9 Surface spread of flame 94
3.10 Fire resistance 96
References 98
4 Fire Modelling of Composites
4.1 Introduction 103
4.2 Thermal exposure 104
4.3 Modelling material fire dynamics 115
4.4 Structural modelling of fire response 122
References 131
v
vi Fire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials
5 Modelling the Thermal Response of Composites in Fire
5.1 Introduction 13
5.2 Response of composites to fire 134
5.3 Modelling heat conduction in composites 138
5.4 Modelling the fire response of composites 141
5.5 Modelling the thermal properties of composites 152
5.6 Concluding remarks 157
References 158
6 Structural Properties of Composites in Fire
6.1 Introduction 163
6.2 Laminate properties 164
6.3 Measurement of elastic constants 171
6.4 Mechanical properties as a function of temperature 174
6.5 Modelling of properties 180
6.6 Fire resistance of laminates under load 191
6.7 Modelling of fire resistance of laminates under load 198
6.8 Concluding remarks 211
References 21
7 Post-Fire Properties of Composites
7.1 Introduction 215
7.2 Post-fire properties of laminates 216
7.3 Modelling the post-fire properties of laminates 226
7.4 Post-fire properties of sandwich composites 232
7.5 Post-fire properties of fire protected composites 233
7.6 Concluding remarks 235
References 235
8 Flame Retardant Composites
8.1 Introduction 237
8.2 The combustion cycle 238
8.3 Flame retardants for composites 240
8.4 Flame retardant fillers for composite 241
8.5 Flame retardant organic polymers for composites 256
8.6 Flame retardant inorganic polymers for composites 270
8.7 Flame retardant fibres for composites 272
8.8 Fire protective surface coatings 273
References 284
9 Fire Properties of Polymer Nanocomposites
9.1 Introduction 287
9.2 Characterization of nanocomposite formation 291
9.3 Evaluation of fire retardancy 293
9.4 Clay modifications 294
Table of Contents vii
9.5 Examples of fire retardancy of polymer nanocomposites 296
9.6 Mechanisms of fire retardancy in nanocomposites 306
9.7 Future trends in fire retardancy of nanocomposites 307
References 308
10 Fire Safety Regulations
10.1 Introduction 313
10.2 Fire safety regulations for rail 314
10.3 Fire safety regulations for automobiles, buses and trucks 316
10.4 Fire safety regulations for civil infrastructure 316
10.5 Fire safety regulations for civilian aircraft 316
10.6 Fire safety regulations for ships and submarines 318
References 323
11 Fire Tests for Composites
1.1 Introduction 325
11.2 Scale of fire reaction tests 327
11.3 Cone calorimeter 328
11.4 Atmosphere controlled cone calorimeter 335
11.5 Intermediate-scale cone calorimeter 336
11.6 Ohio State University calorimeter 337
11.7 Limiting oxygen index test 339
11.8 Flame spread tests 340
11.9 Smoke density tests 342
11.10 Furnace tests 344
11.11 Burn-through & jet fire tests 347
11.12 Single burning item test 348
11.13 Room fire tests 349
11.14 Structural integrity in fire tests 352
11.15 Aircraft fire tests 353
11.16 Concluding remarks 354
References 35
12 Health Hazards of Composites in Fire
12.1 Introduction 359
12.2 Smoke toxicity test methods 360
12.3 Health hazards of combustion gases 364
12.4 N-gas model for smoke toxic potency 371
12.5 Health hazards of fibres 372
12.6 Personal protective wear against burning composite materials 380
12.7 Concluding remarks 380
References 381
Subject Index 385
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1 Background
A sustained upsurge in the use of fibre reinforced polymer (FRP) composite materials
has occurred over the last forty years. The use of polymer composites has grown at a
phenomenal rate since the 1960s, and these materials now have an impressive and
diverse range of applications in aircraft, spacecraft, boats, ships, automobiles, civil
infrastructure, sporting goods and consumer products. The use of composites will
continue to grow in coming years with emerging applications in large bridge structures,
offshore platforms, engine machinery, computer hardware and biomedical devices.
Figure 1.1 shows the growth in the use of composite materials by various industry
sectors in the United States since 1960. Over this period consumption has increased
about 30 times, and the growth rate is expected to continue. The greatest increases are
occurring in the transport and construction markets, although the use of composites is
also substantial in the corrosion protection (eg. piping), marine, and electrical/electronic
markets as shown in Fig. 1.2.
Growth in the use of composites has reached a level where they are now challenging the
use of traditional materials - most notably steels and aluminium alloys - in many
markets; particularly the aircraft, boat-building and chemical processing industries.
While composites will never replace steel as the most used engineering material, the
value of the composite market is expected to remain strong. Sales of composites in the
United States exceeded 1.5 million tons in 2001, and sales are expected to increase as
these materials penetrate deeper into established markets such as construction and
aerospace and infiltrate emerging markets such as rail. The drive to reduce the cost and
increase the quality and structural performance of composites together with the
emerging developments in polymer nanocomposites will be key factors supporting the
increased use of FRP materials.
1
2 Fire Properties of Polymer Composite Materials
700
2000
aircraft
appliance
600 construction
consumer goods
corrosion protection
total consumption
1500 electrical & electronic
500
marine
transportation
other
400
1000
300
200
500
100
0 0
1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000
Year Year
(a) (b)
Figure 1.1. Growth in the (a) total use and (b) use by individual market sectors in the
United States. (Source: Composite Fabrication Association).
Marine: 9.9% (151M kg) Electronics: 9.8% (150M kg))
Consumer: 6.5% (100M kg)
Corrosion: 12.1% (185M kg)
Appliance: 5.6% (85.5M kg)
Other: 3.2% (48.6M kg)
Aerospace: 0.7% (10.5M kg)
Construction: 20.0% (307M kg)
Transport: 32.3% (494 Mkg)
Figure 1.2. Use of composite materials by different market segments in the United States in 2001.
(Source: Composites Fabrication Association).
6
Consumption (x10 kg)
6
Consumption (x10 kg)
