Field Methods in Archaeology

449 Pages·2009·28.06 MB·English

by  Thomas R. Hester

Field Methods in
Archaeoloj
SEVENTH EDITION
Thomas R. Hester
Harry J. Shafer
Kenneth L. Feder
S3 Routledge
|^ Taylor & Francis Group
LONDON AND NEW YORK
First published 2009 by Left Coast Press, Inc.
Published 2016 by Routledge
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Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data:
Hester, Thomas R. 1946-
Field methods in archaeology / Thomas R. Hester, Harry J. Shafer, Kenneth L. Feder ~ 7th ed.
p. cm.
Includes bibliography, references and index.
ISBN 978-1-59874-428-6
1. Archaeology ~ Field work.
I. Shafer, Harry J. II Feder, Kenneth L. III. Title
CC76.H47 1997 96-27313
930.1'-dc20CIP
ISBN 978-1-59874-428-6 paperback
C O N T E N TS
Preface ix Meaning 19
Guide to Further Reading 20
1 Introduction Thomas R. Hester 1
Contemporary Issues 1 3 Research Design and Sampling
The Burgeoning Literature 2 Techniques Harry J. Shafer 21
Archaeology and Archaeologists 4 Research Design 21
Guide to Further Reading 4 Formulation 22
Implementation 23
Data Acquisition 23
2 Goals of Archaeological Investigation Data Processing 24
Harry J. Shafer 5 Data Analysis 24
Kinds of Archaeology 5 Interpretation of Data 24
Archaeology of the Classical World 6 Dissemination of the Results 24
Prehistoric Archaeology 7 Sampling Methods 25
Historical Archaeology 7 Nonprobabilistic Sampling 25
Industrial Archaeology 8 Probabilistic Sampling 26
Nautical or Underwater Archaeology Cluster Sampling 27
9
Nested Sampling 27
Anthropological Archaeology: A Chronology
Selecting a Random Sampling
of Change 9
Method 28
Cultural-historical Era 9
Simple Random Sampling 28
New or Processual Archaeology Era 10
Systematic Random Sampling 29
Postprocessual Era 15
Systematic Unaligned Sampling 31
Cultural Resource Management and
Stratified Random Sampling 31
Salvage Archaeology 26
Sample Fraction and Sample Size 33
Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act of 1990 18 Sample Units 34
Goals of Archaeology Today 18 Surface Collecting 35
Form 19 Excavation Sampling 37
Function 19 Sampling Realities 39
Process 19 Guide to Further Reading 40
iii
iv CONTENTS
4 Site Survey Kenneth L. Feder 41 Approaches to Excavation 73
Goals of Site Survey 42 Site Excavation Techniques 77
Survey Phases 43 Trenching 77
Basic Considerations in Site Survey 44 Strip and Quartering 79
Artifacts 44 Architectural-unit Excavation 79
Features or Facilities 44 Area Excavation 80
Anthropic Soil Horizons 44 Stripping 85
Chemical Anomalies 44 Excavation Methods 87
Instrument Anomalies 45 Vertical-face Methods 87
Factors in Survey Design 46 Unit-level Method 88
Visibility 46 Natural-stratigraphic-level Method 90
Obtrusiveness 47 Screening Excavated Deposits 93
Accessibility 49 Excavating a "Typical" Unit 98
Background Research 50 Important Considerations 98
Literature Review 50 The Excavation Itself 99
Local Informants 50 Excavating Special Site Types 101
History and Ethnohistory 52 Water-saturated Sites 102
Environmental Variables 52 Caves and Rockshelters 102
Field Methods in Site Survey 53 Structural Remains 104
Pedestrian Survey 54 Backdirt and Backfilling 109
Subsurface Survey 56 Some Hazards in Field work 110
Comparison of Methods 57 Guide to Further Reading 112
Test-pitting Effectiveness 58
Chemical Survey 59
6 Data Preservation: Recording and
Remote Sensing: Instrument Anomaly
Survey 59 Collecting Kenneth L. Feder 113
Preserving Context Through Record
Passive Procedures 60
Keeping 114
Active Procedures 61
Measuring Provenience 114
Remote Sensing: Aerial Survey 61
Horizontal Location 116
Practical Considerations 63
Vertical Location and Extent 120
Guide to Further Reading 68
Recording Stratigraphy 124
Associating Records with Objects 127
Computerized Record Keeping 131
5 Methods of Excavation Thomas R. Collection and Protection of Certain
Artifacts 133
Hester 69
Lithics 134
Tools and Equipment for Field Archaeology
69 Ceramics 135
Large Tools 70 Collection and Analysis of Soil Samples 136
Hand Tools 70 Rock Art Recording 137
Other Handy Implements 72 Guide to Further Reading 142
CONTENTS V
7 The Handling and Conservation of Field Care of Equipment 168
Artifacts in the Field Thomas R. Subject Matter 169
Hester 143 General Site Views 170
General Field Procedures 144 Features and Burials 170
Materials to Use and to Avoid 146 Excavation Methods and Techniques
Field Techniques for Specific Artifact 172
Types 148 Soil Profiles 172
Bone 148 Petroglyphs and Pictographs 173
Antler 150 Artifacts 174
Shell 150 Negative Storage 175
Stone 150 Field Photography: A Recap 175
Textiles 151 Guide to Further Reading 176
Metal 151
Wood 153 9 Archaeological Mapping, Site Grids,
Ceramics 154 and Surveying L. Kyle Napton with
Special Cases 155 Elizabeth Anne Greathouse 177
Imaging Techniques 178
Curation Facilities 155
Remote Sensing Imagery 178
Field Record Considerations 156
Aerial Photographs 180
Laboratory Curation Considerations
156 Terrestrial Photographs and
Photogrammetry 180
Guide to Further Reading 158
General Map Types 180
USGS Topographic Quadrangles 181
8 Archaeological Field Photography l:250,000-scale Maps (l-x-2-degree Series)
181
Harry J. Shafer 159
l:100,000-scale Maps (30-x-60-minute
Objectives of Field Photography 159
Series) 181
Photo Documentation 159
l:63,500-scale Maps (15-minute Series)
Photo Illustration 160 182
General Purposes 260 l:24,000-scale Maps (7.5-minute Series)
Some Basic Elements of Photography 162 182
Film Speed 162 Other USGS Map Products 182
Diaphragm Opening 163 Information Given on Topographic
Quadrangles 182
Exposure Time 163
Symbols Used on Topographic
Relationship Between Diaphragm
Quadrangles 183
Opening and Exposure Time 163
Contour Lines on Topographic
Light Intensity 163
Quadrangles 183
Camera Equipment 164
Elevations on Topographic Quadrangles
Accessory Equipment 166 183
Some Suggestions for Field Photography Direction on Topographic Quadrangles
167 185
vi CONTENTS
Distances on Topographic Quadrangles Box 9.9: Laying Out a Grid Using
186 the 3-4-5 Tape Method 211
Locational Reference Systems on Plane Table Method 212
Topographic Quadrangles 187
Constructing Very Large Grids 212
Geographic Coordinate System (GCS)
Electronic Stake-out 212
("Latitude and Longitude") 187
The Global Positioning System (GPS) and
Universal Transverse Mercator
Mapping 212
(UTM) Grid System 188
Archaeological Site Plan Maps 215
Box 9.1: Determining the UTM
Grid Location of Archaeological Instruments Used in Site Plan Mapping
Sites 189 215
United States Public Land Survey Plane Table and Alidade 215
System (USPLSS) (System of Transit, Theodolite, and Engineer's
Rectangular Surveys) 189 Level 216
Box 9.2: Gunter's Chain 193 Comparative Merits of Plane Table
State Plane Coordinate System and Alidade Versus Transits 220
(SPCS) 196 Instruments for Distance Measurement
Box 9.3: Determining Site 220
Location Using the USPLSS By Stadia (Tacheometry) 220
("Legal Location") 197
Advantages and Disadvantages of
Metes-and-Bounds (MB) 197 the Stadia Method 221
Land Information Systems (LIS) 198 Electronic Distance Measuring
Archaeological Site Record Maps 198 Instruments (EDMI) 221
Information and Equipment Needs 198 Box 9.10: Survey Targets, Prism
Rods, and Rodpersons 222
Determining Direction 198
Radio 223
Box 9.4: Using an Orienteering
Compass 200 Helpful Hints 223
Determining Distance 201 Establishing the Site Bench Mark and
Datum Plane 224
Identifying the Site Reference Point 202
Instrument Height 224
Box 9.5: Measuring Slope
Distance by Breaking Tape 202 Site Bench Mark and Datum Plane
224
Box 9.6: Obtaining Slope
Reduction and Difference in Plotting Contour Lines 224
Elevation by Clinometer or Computer-assisted Site Mapping 225
Abney Level 203
Geographic Information Systems (GIS) 225
Drafting a Site Record Map 204
Elements of a GIS 225
Box 9.7: Using Horizontal Angles
to Obtain the Position of Archaeological Applications of GIS 226
Features at Unknown Distances Computers and Electronics in Surveying and
206 Mapping 226
Site Datum Point and Site Grid 208 Cartographic Software 227
Establishing the Datum Point 208 Computer-assisted Drafting (CAD) 227
Grid Theory 209 Computer Modeling: Thematic
Box 9.8: Laying Out Expedient Depictions and Virtual Reconstruction
Grids and Picket Lines 210 228
Constructing a Small Grid 210 Map Production 228
CONTENTS VII
Questions to Consider 229 Biological Affinity 259
Map Drafting Materials 229 Cultural Behavior 260
Data Compilation 229 Taphonomy 261
Cartographic Symbols 231 Types of Interments 262
Lettering 232 Primary Interments 262
Typing 232 Secondary Interments 262
Transfer Letters 232 Multiple Interments 262
Leroy Lettering 232 Cremations 263
Kroytype Lettering 232 Adventitious Remains 264
Computer Fonts 232 Excavating Burials 264
Shading and Pattern Transfers 232 Exposing the Burial 264
Production Considerations 233 Burial Records 268
Color Reproduction 233 Removing the Burial 270
Oversize Maps 233 Cleaning and Packing 272
Parting Thoughts 233 Osteological Analysis 274
Guide to Further Reading 234 Determination of Sex 274
Determination of Age 275
Metric Data Collection 278
10 Stratigraphy Richard E. W. Adams Paleopathology 279
and Fred Valdez, Jr. 235
Biological Affinity 280
Definition 236
Legal and Ethical Considerations 281
Principles 236
Guide to Further Reading 282
Goals 238
Techniques of Excavation, Labeling, and
Recording 238
12 Excavation and Recovery of Botanical
Special Situations 247
Materials from Archaeological Sites
The Problem of Sampling 250 Richard G. Holloway 283
Special Aids 251 Material Types 284
Guide to Further Reading 252 Pollen 284
Sampling the Overall Pollen Rain
286
11 Excavation and Analysis of Human Sampling Archaeological Sediments
287
Remains Joseph F. Powell,
D. Gentry Steele, and Michael B. Collins Sampling Artifactual Material 288
253 Phytoliths 289
Why Excavate Human Remains? 254 Wood and Charcoal 290
Research with Skeletal Populations 254 Seeds 291
Paleodemography 255 Coprolites 293
Paleopathology 256 Matrix and Fiber Analysis 295
Paleodietary analysis 257 Processing Methods 296
Skeletal Biology 259 Guide to Further Reading 297
VIII CONTENTS
13 Basic Approaches in Archaeological Electron Spin Resonance 327
Faunal Analysis Barry W. Baker, Thermoluminescence 328
Brian S. Shaffer, and D. Gentry Steele Potassium-argon Dating 329
298
Uranium-series Dating 330
Faunal Assemblage Composition 299
Fission Track Dating 330
Common Research Topics 299
Obsidian-hydration Dating 331
Data Collection 301
Archaeomagnetic Dating 332
Sampling Strategies 302
Amino Acid Dating 333
Box 13.1: Faunal Assemblage
Varve Analysis 333
Background Information 303
Other Physical and Chemical Dating
Field and Laboratory Treatment of
Methods 334
Specimens 307
Association of Dated Historic Materials or
Animal Identification 307
Identifiable Sites 334
Data Recording 308
Methods for Relative Chronology 335
Quantification 309
Stratigraphy 335
Taphonomy and Factors Affecting Faunal
Chemical Analysis of Bone 336
Assemblage Composition 312
Patination and Desert Varnish Analysis
Nonhuman Factors Affecting an
337
Assemblage 312
Seriation 338
Human Factors Affecting an Assemblage
313 Rate of Refuse Accumulation 339
Reconstructing Human Diet and Subsistence Cross-dating 339
313 Geological Methods 340
Estimating Seasonality 315 Concluding Observations 343
Paleoenvironmental Reconstruction 316 Guide to Further Reading 343
Ethical Considerations 316
Guide to Further Reading 317
Appendix A—Tables of Equivalents
and Conversion Factors 345
14 Chronological Methods Thomas R.
Hester 319 Appendix B—Sources of Supplies and
Methods for Absolute (Chronometric) Services 350
Chronology 320
Dendrochronology 320
References Cited 353
Radiocarbon Analysis 321
Collecting Samples in the Field 323
List of Contributors 423
Evaluating a Radiocarbon Date 325
Calibration of Radiocarbon Dates
Credits 424
325
Publishing Radiocarbon Dates 326
Index 425
Other Problems in Radiocarbon
Dating 327
P R E F A CE
Cluster of Olmec figurines (Offering No. 4), excavated by Robert F. Heizer at
La Venta, Tabasco, Mexico, in 1955. Photo courtesy Robert F. Heizer.
This book, appearing now in its seventh edition, is California, as were several revisions, until 1975
a direct lineal descendant of A Manual for Archaeo- when May field Publishing Company took its place.
logical Field Methods, edited by the late Professor The book has gone through several editions,
Robert F. Heizer in 1949. That initial spiral-bound with the first hardcover version published in 1958.
edition had fewer than 100 pages, with chapters Major restructuring was done for the edition pub-
written mainly by students, and it was designed to lished by Heizer and Graham (1967), which be-
be a field manual for Central California archaeol- came the most widely used field methods book in
ogy. It was published by National Press of Millbrae, North America. The sixth edition, by Hester et al.
ix