Table Of ContentKyoko Nakamura · Kaori Miyachi ·
Yukio Miyawaki · Makiko Toda Editors
Female Genital
Mutilation/
Cutting
Global Zero Tolerance Policy and Diverse
Responses from African and Asian Local
Communities
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting
· ·
Kyoko Nakamura Kaori Miyachi
·
Yukio Miyawaki Makiko Toda
Editors
Female Genital
Mutilation/Cutting
Global Zero Tolerance Policy and Diverse
Responses from African and Asian Local
Communities
Editors
KyokoNakamura KaoriMiyachi
FacultyofGlobalandRegionalStudies FacultyofEducation
ToyoUniversity SagaUniversity
Tokyo,Japan Saga,Japan
YukioMiyawaki MakikoToda
GraduateSchoolofSustainableSystem FacultyofContemporarySociety
Sciences KyotoWomen’sUniversity
OsakaMetropolitanUniversity Kyoto,Japan
Osaka,Japan
ISBN 978-981-19-6722-1 ISBN 978-981-19-6723-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-6723-8
Translation from the Japanese language edition: Gulo¯balu Disuko¯su to Josei no Karada: Afurika no
JoseikiSetsujotoLo¯caluShakainoTayo¯sei(“GlobalDiscourseandWomen’sBodies:FemaleGenital
Mutilation/CuttingAndLocalDiversitiesinAfrica”)byKyokoNakamuraetal.,©YukioMiyawaki,
MakikoToda,KyokoNakamura,KaoriMiyachi2021.PublishedbyKOYOSHOBOCorporation.All
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Preface
This book originates from the Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting (FGM/C) Study
Group launched by the editors in 2017. The members of the group are cultural
anthropologistsandpoliticalscientists,basedinJapan,whostudyAfricafromdiverse
perspectives,includinggender,reproductivehealthrights,communitydevelopment,
lifecourse,religion,andpolitics.Thestudywasfundedbyseveralgrants,including
theGrant-in-AidforScientificResearch(C),“EthnographicalStudyonFC,FGM/C:
ChoicesonLifeCourseandSocialStatusofAfricanWomen(FY2015–2018)”and
the Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (S) “‘African Potential’ and Overcoming
theDifficultiesintheModernWorld:ComprehensiveAreaStudiesthatwillProvide
aNewPerspectivefortheFutureofHumanity(FY2016–2020).”
Inthestudygroup,eachmemberhassharedanddiscussedwhattheyhadlearned
inthefield.Atthe55thAnnualMeetingoftheJapanAssociationforAfricanStudies
held at Hokkaido University in May 2018, the group organized a forum, namely
Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting and Diversity of Local Societies, to report the
resultsofthediscussion.
Afterthisforum,thestudygroupcontinued,withassistancefromtheGrant-in-
AidforChallengingExploratoryResearch,“InterdisciplinaryResearchonAbolition
of FGM: From ‘Zero Tolerance’ to ‘Adaptive Governance.’” Members collected
currentlocaldatathroughfieldworkandshareditwiththestudygrouptoenrichthe
discussion.
TheFGM/CStudyGrouphasalsoactivelyengaged indiscussionswithinvited
international scholarswho have interdisciplinaryperspectives. InNovember 2017,
itco-hostedaspecialseminar,“GenderJusticeandReligioninSub-SaharanAfrica:
The Case of Female Genital Mutilation” organized by the research project “Per-
spectivesofUmesaoStudies”attheInstituteforResearchintheHumanities,Kyoto
University,Kyoto,Japan.In2018,itorganizedtheinternationalworkshop“Female
Genital Mutilation in Malaysia” with the Center for Women’s Studies at Osaka
PrefectureUniversity.In2019,itorganizedtheinternationalworkshop“Reconsid-
eringFGM/C:ChallengesfromMedicalandAnthropologicalPerspective”atToyo
University.Furthermore,in2018,2019,and2020,membershadtheopportunityto
v
vi Preface
discuss FGM/C with Asian Studies scholars in a panel session at the Asia Pacific
ConferencehostedbyRitsumeikanAsiaPacificUniversity.
These opportunities have allowed us to have interdisciplinary discussions with
researchers from different countries and in various fields, many of whom have
contributedtothisbook.TheyareAssoc.Prof.GetanehMehari(AddisAbabaUniver-
sity) who presents the case of the Somali Community in Ethiopia; Prof. Rogaia
Mustafa Abusharaf (SFSQ, Georgetown University), a world pioneer in FGM/C
research;ClinicalAssoc.Prof.NesrinVarol(UniversityofSydney)whosharesthe
currentsituationinAustraliafromamedicalviewpoint;Prof.AbdulRashid(RCSI
andUCDMalaysiaCampus)whoalsopresentsthecasefromamedicalviewpoint;
and Prof. Yufu Iguchi (Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University) who specializes in
Malaysianstudies.
SomeresultsofthestudygroupwerefirstpublishedinaJapanesebook,Global
DiscourseandWomen’sBodies:FemaleGenitalMutilation/CuttingandLocalDiver-
sitiesinAfrica,byKoyoShoboin2021.Itwasmadepossiblebyapublicationgrant
from Kyoto Women’s University. We express our appreciation to Mr. Kiyoyasu
Marui, Koyo Shobo, who supported the publishing and editing it and encouraged
ustopublishthisbook.
This book is the result of strengthening the Japanese book by reconsidering
FGM/Cfromabroaderinterdisciplinaryperspective,withcomparativeresearchon
theFGM/CsituationnotonlyinAfricabutalsoinAsiaandAustralia.Weexpress
oursinceregratitudetoalloftheresearcherswhodiscussedthisissueinourstudy
groupandtoallofthosewhoprovidedfinancialsupport.Wearealsodeeplygrateful
toMs.JunoKawakami,asenioreditoratSpringer,forherkindguidanceandtireless
support.
Although many strong FGM-elimination projects are currently underway, little
is known about the realities of local societies and individuals. This book has the
academicsignificanceofportrayinghowthecurrentsituationofFGM/Cisbecoming
increasinglydiverse,politicized,andcomplex.Anotherfeatureofthisbookisthat
itconsiderstheissuefromabroadperspective,includingthelittle-knownpractice
of FGM/C in Asia, infant male circumcision as a potentially “neglected” sexual
health and rights issue, and cases of African immigrant and refugee women who
havemigratedtoAustralia.
Finally, we express our deepest gratitude to all those who generously cooper-
atedwithourresearchontheextremelysensitivetopicofFGM/Cinthecontextof
sexualityandpolitics.Withouttheirtrust,theresearchwouldnothavebeenpossible.
Tokyo,Japan KyokoNakamura
Saga,Japan KaoriMiyachi
Osaka,Japan YukioMiyawaki
Kyoto,Japan MakikoToda
Acknowledgements
Thepublicationandresearchforthisbookweresupportedbythefollowinggrants
andorganizations:
– Toyo University Top Priority Research Program, Center for Sustainable Devel-
opmentStudies,ToyoUniversity
– PublicationSupportProgram,KyotoWomen’sUniversity
– Grant-in-AidforScientificResearch(C),“EthnographicalStudyonFC,FGM/C:
Choices on Life Course and Social Status of African Women” (FY2015–2018,
PI:KyokoNakamura,ProjectNumber:15K01875)
– Grant-in-AidforScientificResearch(S),“‘AfricanPotential’andOvercomingthe
DifficultiesintheModernWorld:ComprehensiveAreaStudiesthatwillProvide
aNewPerspectivefortheFutureofHumanity”(2016–2020,PI:MotojiMatsuda,
ProjectNumber:16H06318)
– Grant-in-AidforChallengingExploratoryResearch,“InterdisciplinaryStudyon
theAbolitionofFemaleGenitalMutilation:From‘ZeroTolerance’to‘Adaptive
Governance’”(FY2018–2020,PI:YukioMiyawaki,ProjectNumber:18K18541)
– Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B), “The Female Body in Post-colonies:
‘Female Genital Mutilation’ in Southeast Asia and Africa” (FY2019–2022, PI:
YufuIguchi,Projectnumber:19H04390)
vii
Contents
1 Introduction .................................................. 1
KyokoNakamura
1.1 WHODefinitionandClassification ......................... 1
1.2 Terminology ............................................. 2
1.3 TheAbolitionMovementandPoliticsandEconomics
inWesternSocieties ...................................... 4
1.4 EnactmentofProhibitionLawsandLocalReactions ........... 5
1.5 ZeroToleranceandtheUNBanon“Medicalization” .......... 5
1.6 ChapterContents ......................................... 7
References .................................................... 9
2 GlobalDiscourseandthePatriarchalNormsofFGM:Beyond
theZeroTolerancePolicy ...................................... 13
MakikoToda
2.1 Introduction ............................................. 13
2.1.1 FGMandCulturalRelativism ...................... 13
2.1.2 LocalDiversityinAfrica ........................... 14
2.1.3 TheAimofThisChapter .......................... 15
2.2 ZeroTolerancePolicyintheInternationalCommunity ......... 16
2.2.1 EffortsoftheInternationalCommunity .............. 16
2.2.2 UniversalDeclarationofHumanRights .............. 22
2.2.3 SDGs ........................................... 22
2.2.4 ChangesinAfrica ................................. 23
2.3 ZeroTolerancePolicyinKenyaandFGMintheSomali
Community ............................................. 23
2.3.1 ZeroTolerancePolicyinKenya ..................... 23
2.3.2 FGMintheSomaliCommunity ..................... 24
2.3.2.1 ReasonsforPracticingFGM ............... 25
2.3.2.2 ChangeofCommonFGMForms ........... 26
2.3.2.3 TheNegativeEffectofAnti-FGMLaw
onSomaliWomen’sHealth ................ 27
ix
x Contents
2.4 WaysofAbolishingFGM—BeyondtheZeroTolerance
Approach ............................................... 27
2.4.1 TheRoleofReligiousLeaders ...................... 27
2.4.2 PositiveDevianceApproach ........................ 28
2.5 Conclusion .............................................. 29
References .................................................... 30
3 What Has Become of FGC After Strict Eradication
Campaigns?:FemaleGenitalCuttingandItsEradication
ActivitiesAmongtheYellowBullinEthiopia .................... 35
YukioMiyawaki
3.1 Introduction ............................................. 35
3.2 FGCinEthiopia ......................................... 37
3.2.1 GeneralViewofFGCinEthiopia ................... 37
3.2.2 FGCinEthiopiaBasedonDHS ..................... 38
3.2.3 FGCinAmharaRegion ............................ 38
3.2.3.1 DHSDataAnalysis ....................... 38
3.2.3.2 EastGojjam ............................. 39
3.2.4 FGCinHarariRegion ............................. 39
3.2.5 FGCinSomaliRegion ............................ 40
3.2.5.1 SomaliRefugeesinSomaliRegion .......... 40
3.2.5.2 JijigaCity ............................... 40
3.2.6 OromiaRegion ................................... 41
3.2.6.1 EastHararge ............................. 41
3.2.6.2 Bale .................................... 41
3.2.7 FGCinTransition ................................ 42
3.3 ForcedAbolitionandResistanceofWomen:FGCAmong
theYellowBull .......................................... 42
3.3.1 HistoricalBackgroundoftheYellowBull ............ 42
3.3.2 FGCoftheYellowBull ............................ 44
3.3.3 PatriarchyandthePoliticsofInterpretation:Ritual
MeaningsofFGCAmongtheYellowBull ............ 44
3.3.3.1 TransitionofWomen’sStatus ............... 44
3.3.3.2 EthnicIdentityandFGC ................... 45
3.3.3.3 DeathandRebirth,MurderandPlunder ...... 46
3.3.4 InterpretationofFGCandResistanceofWomen ...... 47
3.3.4.1 PatriarchyandResistanceofWomen ........ 47
3.3.4.2 FGCandWomen’sDomain ................ 48
3.4 AbolitionofFGCintheYellowBull ........................ 49
3.4.1 FGMAbolitionCampaignAmongtheYellowBull .... 49
3.4.2 FailureofAbolition ............................... 51
3.4.3 StakeholdersandPoliticsofFGC ................... 52
3.5 Conclusion .............................................. 54
References .................................................... 54
Contents xi
4 EndingFemaleGenitalMutilation:ProgressandChallenges
intheSomaliRegion,Ethiopia ................................. 57
GetanehMehari
4.1 Introduction ............................................. 57
4.2 ObjectivesandMethods ................................... 59
4.2.1 Objectives ....................................... 59
4.2.2 MethodsandSourcesofData ....................... 59
4.2.3 StudySitesandPeople ............................ 60
4.3 AnalysisofFindings ...................................... 60
4.3.1 Interventions:AgentsandStrategies ................. 60
4.3.2 Ending Female Genital Mutilation/Cutting:
ProgressandChallenges ........................... 61
4.3.2.1 ChangesinFGM-RelatedAwareness ........ 61
4.3.2.2 Marriageability,PurityandVirginity ......... 62
4.3.2.3 TotalAbandonmentorShiftingtoSunna
Cutting? ................................. 64
4.3.2.4 RomanticizingSunnaCutGirls ............. 64
4.3.2.5 RoleofReligionandReligiousLeaders ...... 65
4.4 GeneralDiscussion ....................................... 68
4.5 Conclusion .............................................. 70
References .................................................... 70
5 TransformationandContinuation:FGCAmongtheGusii
PeopleinWesternKenya ....................................... 73
KaoriMiyachi
5.1 Introduction ............................................. 74
5.2 ChangesofFC/FGCinKDHS ............................. 74
5.3 FGCasaTraditionAmongtheGusiiPeople ................. 76
5.3.1 AsaRiteofPassage ............................... 76
5.3.2 ReasonsforthePractice ........................... 77
5.3.2.1 LifeStages .............................. 77
5.3.2.2 GenderPerspectives ....................... 78
5.4 MedicalizationandChangesofFGCfrom1980sUntil2000 .... 78
5.4.1 MedicalizationSincethe1980s ..................... 78
5.4.2 ThePlacesoftheOperation ........................ 79
5.4.2.1 OperationattheHome .................... 79
5.4.2.2 OperationattheClinic .................... 80
5.4.2.3 OperationattheHospital .................. 81
5.4.3 People’sReactions ................................ 81
5.4.3.1 GirlsBehaviour .......................... 81
5.4.3.2 ChangingCuttingStyles ................... 81
5.4.3.3 ChangingStyleofCelebration .............. 82
5.4.3.4 OtherChanges ........................... 82
5.5 HowHavePeople’sAttitudesChanged? ..................... 83
5.5.1 Anti-FGMActivities .............................. 83
