Table Of ContentFeeding of Non-ruminant Livestock
Collective edited work by the research staff of the Departement de l'Elevage des
Monogastriques, INRA, under the responsibility of Jean-Claude Blum.
Translated and edited by Julian Wiseman
Lecturer in Animal Production
University of Nottingham School of Agriculture
Butterworths
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Original French language edition © Institut National de
la Recherche Agronomique, 1984
English translation © Butterworth & Co. (Publishers) Ltd, 1987
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Feeding of non-ruminant livestock
1. Animal nutrition
I. Institut national de la recherche
agronomique II. Blum, Jean-Claude
III. Wiseman, Julian
636.08'4 SF95
ISBN 0-407-00460-2
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Alimentation des animaux monogastriques. English.
Feeding of non-ruminant livestock
Translation of: L'Alimentation des animaux monogastriques.
Bibliography: p.
Includes index.
1. Animal nutrition. 2. Feeds. 3. Swine-Feeding
and feeds. 4. Poultry-Feeding and feeds. 5. Rabbits-
Feeding and feeds. I. Blum, Jean-Claude. II. Wiseman,
J. (Julian) III. Institut national de la recherche
agronomique (France). Departement d'elevage des
monogastriques. IV. Title. V. Title: Non-ruminant
livestock
SF95.A475 1987 636.08'5 86-19268
ISBN 0-407-00460-2
Photoset by TecSet Ltd, Wallington, Surrey.
Printed and bound in England by
Robert Hartnoll (1985) Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall.
Preface
Although the principal objective of this book was to provide a sound document in
French dealing with the feeding of non-ruminant livestock, it was felt that the
wealth of data relating to nutritional requirements and raw material composition
accompanied by a thorough and comprehensive text ought to appeal to a far wider
readership. Furthermore, in addition to the conventional livestock considered
(pigs, broiler chickens, turkeys, laying hens, rabbits), there are valuable details
relating to 'minority' species which are important in France but less so outside that
country. However, the poussin, for example, has already made an impact in the
UK and the guinea-fowl may soon follow. Certainly, it could be agreed that
diversification in terms of species reared may be a particularly useful development
in the livestock sector.
The book should appeal both to students of animal production/nutrition where
the sections dealing with energy, protein, minerals and vitamins may be particularly
appropriate, as well as to those involved in the commercial animal feed sector
where the comprehensive data and comments on raw material composition should
prove invaluable.
In France, it is customary to express energy-yielding value in terms of cal/kg.
Accepting that the SI unit is in fact MJ/kg, it was felt that this latter term is not yet
widely employed. Accordingly, the former is retained throughout the text.
Julian Wiseman
Nottingham, 1986
vi
Acknowledgements
I would like to acknowledge the considerable assistance of B. Leclercq of Station
de Recherches Avicoles, Nouzilly, Tours, France, my wife Lesley who gave
invaluable advice on many of the finer points of French grammar, and Carol
Stanton who typed the handwritten manuscript.
Contributors
J. D. Blum
Chef du Departement de l'filevage des Monogastriques,
Centre INRA de Tours-Nouzilly,
37380 Monnaie, France
D. Bourdon, C. Fevrier, Y. Henry, J. M. Perez and B. Seve
Station de Recherches sur l'filevage des Pores,
Centre INRA de Rennes-Saint-Gilles,
35590 L'Hermitage, France
F. Lebas
Laboratoire de Recherches sur l'filevage du Lapin,
Centre de Recherches de Toulouse,
BP 12,
31320 Castanet-Tolosan, France
M. Larbier, B. Leclercq, M. Lessire, B. Sauveur and P. Stevens
Station de Recherches Avicoles,
Centre INRA de Tours-Nouzilly,
37380 Monnaie, France
ix
Introduction
Domestic non-ruminant animals — definition and characteristics
The term non-ruminant has appeared as the opposite of the term ruminant. Thus
any definition of the term requires some form of comparison.
In ruminants food is modified to a large extent by the rumen microflora before it
is degraded by the animal's own digestive system. In non-ruminants this latter
system operates initially; microflora only have a limited role, confined pre-
dominantly to the large intestine and based on the utilization of residues, both
exogenous and endogenous, of digestion and absorption.
As food passes rapidly through the crop of birds, this only has a slight influence
(amylolytic flora) which is in no way comparable to that of the rumen. To
summarize, the species which are of interest are linked less by morphological
characteristics (i.e. a simple stomach) than by a digestive physiology which differs
from that of ruminants because it ascribes a major role to the digestion of food by
the animal's own digestive processes and only a secondary role to microflora. The
use of similar techniques in the rearing and feeding of these animals constitutes
another common feature among non-ruminants of interest to animal science: for
instance the provision of balanced compound feeds obtained from a mixture of raw
materials, intensive rearing in large numbers, and rigid control of feed intake at
certain periods of the life-cycle.
This is intended neither as a comprehensive work on nutrition nor as a collection
of useful hints but rather is directed to those interested in the nutrition of pigs,
rabbits and poultry who are looking for technical data necessary for the formulation
of balanced compound diets and also for those who wish to adopt a dietary
programme to meet changing requirements as and when they occur during
rearing.
A basic knowledge of the digestive physiology and metabolism of non-ruminants
is assumed. As man is himself a non-ruminant this knowledge is to be found widely
in most classic works of physiology and biochemistry. On the other hand, we
considered it necessary to review briefly some general facts about the nutrition of
non-ruminants in Part I, with particular emphasis on the characteristic require-
ments as influenced by rearing conditions: to investigate optimum animal perfor-
mance and, to an even greater extent, maximum economic output.
In the last two parts of the book, which form a technical dossier and which
therefore are the most important, we have collated a considerable amount of new
information not found in English publications and sometimes as yet unpublished.
xi
xii Introduction
Whether for nutritional recommendations (Part II) or for composition of raw
materials (Part III) we have endeavoured to be as precise as possible by relying
upon, in the first instance, our own results, then upon those of our fellow
researchers and, finally, upon a literature review. In order to allow a choice
relevant to individual economic situations we have sometimes indicated the
possibility of using different feed levels which will promote varying levels of animal
performance. For the same reason, we have also indicated the variability in raw
material composition.
Our main objective has not been one of innovation. We do not propose to
change the criteria of feed formulation. We have however had to choose between
those currently employed and reject those whose use would be premature but
which may nevertheless be of interest. We feel it is necessary to justify these
choices.
Comments on criteria used in feed formulation
Within the limits of the food offered, in order to maintain itself the non-ruminant
animal must obtain all essential nutrients in an available form. Thus the formula-
tion must be complete and must account for both the animal's requirements and the
characteristics of the feed (including both composition together with digestive and
metabolic fate). For this reason we considered it important to bring together in the
same book feed recommendations and characteristics of raw materials used in feed
formulation. Among these characteristics, we are able to distinguish between those
nutrients where values are easily determined by simple analyses, and those more
difficult to assess because they are dependent both upon the feed and its utilization
by the animal.
This being the case, energy value is expressed differently for each species or
animal type (poultry values are applied to all birds in the absence of precise data for
each species). In pigs and rabbits digestible energy has actually been determined
and constitutes the most relevant term for balancing a diet. However, digestible
energy does have disadvantages in so far as it overestimates the energy value of
protein, especially the part not retained for synthesis and not completely catabol-
ized for excretion via the urine. Bearing in mind this incomplete breakdown,
metabolizable energy is a better measurement of the energy value of high-protein
raw materials and thus allows for a better estimate of their relative worth in
low-cost diets. However, metabolizable energy is not yet completely satisfactory as
it places all nutrients on an equal footing to cover different energy needs
(quantitatively and qualitatively) according to the physiological state of the animal
and the composition of liveweight gain. All animal scientists would like to use an
energy value which covers all losses and production requirements — net energy —
in order to express requirements and the energy value of raw materials. Unfortu-
nately net energy has the disadvantage of considerable reliance on the animal and
its nutritional state. In this way, experimental conditions influence results and
consequently authors present conflicting measurements. In fact there is not one but
several different net energies for each type of production: in the case of the pig, for
example, even given the availability of reliable data (which is not the case at
present) net energy for fattening could not be validly used for the whole growth
period and even less for other periods of the animal's life. Finally, the problem is
Conclusions xiii
made more complex by interactions between nutrients and metabolites, which
results in non-additivity between different energy levels. All things considered, at
present it appears impossible to construct a coherent system of net energy from the
scattered and contradictory data found in the literature. The methods of expression
adopted in this work have on the contrary the advantage of reliability. For pigs,
both digestible energy (measured) and metabolizable energy (calculated) have
been mentioned — the latter may be preferable for determining relative worth.
The requirements and raw material composition of amino acids are presented
without reference to their availability. It is however known that there are a number
of factors influencing this — some linked to the animal (species, age) others to the
feed (origin of raw materials, processing). Unfortunately measurements are
difficult and associated with errors such that it is impossible at present to distinguish
reliably between different raw materials.
In fact, nutritional recommendations take this variability into account by
adequately overestimating the necessary quantities. The saying 'he who can do
more, can do less' can only too well be applied to nutritional problems. We cover
ourselves by oversupplementation (with the unlikelihood of creating an imbalance
through excess — methionine in rabbits), but we end up with costly waste. This is
the case for protein and essential amino acids. Any deficiency is detrimental but
any excess is broken down without much gain to the animal (low energy value). All
uncontrolled variable factors increase the necessary safety margins. In this respect
the unavailability of amino acids is an important factor. Without doubt we will one
day express nutritive values in terms of available amino acids. At the same time we
will better estimate the quality of different protein sources and be able considerably
to reduce protein levels in diets. Important applied research in this field is
continuing for all non-ruminants.
What is valid for protein is equally so for minerals and vitamins. They are not
completely available and factors influencing their availability are still poorly
understood. However, it seems possible and useful in this context to take into
consideration phosphorus for poultry: requirements and composition of raw
materials will be expressed in terms of available phosphorus.
The omission of any comments and data on feed additives which are widely used
for non-ruminants will certainly not pass unnoticed. We felt that inclusion of such
information, which is governed by legislation, would be superfluous. Moreover,
such additives are more often used for therapeutic than for nutritional reasons
whether by chemical or auxiliary means. It is generally known that growth factors,
anti-stress agents and others have a greater effect when rearing conditions are not
favourable.
Conclusions
In this work our intention has been to inform rather than to confuse when
considering the concepts employed in animal nutrition. We have refused to give
way to elitism by adopting systems which have yet to be put to the test (net energy).
We have however taken into consideration our most recent research work; each
contributor was asked to place his own work within the context of a review of the
literature.
In the desire for clarity, we have run the risk of being rapidly overtaken. This is
therefore only a first edition which we hope will be revised subsequently. This will
xiv Introduction
then not only provide an opportunity for updating, but will also allow for
corrections and omissions. We hope therefore that many of our readers will offer
constructive criticism. All remarks and suggestions will be welcomed to improve
the content of subsequent editions. The promotion of wide discussion on rearing of
animals is necessary given that in the area of animal nutrition, as elsewhere,
participation is better than laissez-faire.
Acknowledgements
This is a collective work, the writing of which called upon the services of
many researchers and technicians from the Departement de l'Elevage des
Monogastriques. The list of principal authors at the beginning of this book omits
many other contributors. I want to stress that B. Leclercq played a key role in
organizing meetings and following the progress of the different authors; further-
more he reviewed all poultry publications. The role of the development officers
should be emphasized: D. Bourdon and J. M. Perez (Station de Recherches sur
l'Elevage des Pores — SRP), M. Lessire (Station de Recherches Avicoles — SRA).
Y. Henry and F. Lebas took charge of the chapters on pigs and rabbits respectively.
B. Sauveur had the thankless job of editing the text; he was helped in this long and
difficult work by the administrative staff at the SRA: Y. Salichon and M.
Plouzeau.
J. C. Blum
INRA, Monnaie, 1986
Chapter 1
Intake, requirements, recommendations
Animals must obtain from their feed all nutrients necessary to permit the renewal
of tissues, growth (during fattening and gestation) and the synthesis of the
constituents of milk and eggs. The quantities of nutrients assimilated during all of
these activities define requirements: requirements for water, dietary energy-
yielding ingredients, protein and essential amino acids, minerals and vitamins.
Requirements vary according to both the physiological condition of the animal and
its health status. The non-productive adult is considered to be at maintenance.
Additional requirements associated with development or production are frequently
accounted for by a simple addition to maintenance. Total daily requirements for a
young fattening animal may for example be broken down into maintenance
requirements associated with a given liveweight and a production requirement
based on daily liveweight gain.
The production of animals may be precisely discussed when requirements are
known, and those factors which modify them understood, by starting with feed
intake and appreciating those elements which influence digestibility and metabo-
lism. It then becomes possible to define the characteristics of the feed to be
given.
However a certain imprecision always exists in the determination of require-
ments, in the knowledge of the exact nutritive value of raw materials and the
estimate of the quantity of feed consumed. In addition, the production of
compound feeds and their handling may be accompanied by a certain heterogeneity
of the mix.
For all these reasons a margin of security is adopted during formulation designed
to ensure that animal requirements are met. It is thus appropriate to move from a
consideration of requirements to one of recommendations. In that which follows,
the principal rules governing the nutrition of non-ruminants in the context of
intake, requirements and recommendations will be considered.
Regulation of feed intake
Although there may be complex interactions between requirements and intake, it is
possible to break up those factors which influence the latter into those associated
with the feed and those associated with the environment (primarily tempera-
ture).
3
