Table Of ContentThe Making of the Twentieth Century
Tllis series of specially commissioned titles focuses attention
on significant and often controversial events and themes of
world history in the present century. The authors, mal!!' of
them already outstanding in their field, have tried to close
the gap between the intelligent layman, whose interest is.
aroused by recent histOlY, and the specialist student at
university. Each book will therefore provide sufficient
narrative and explanation for the newcomer while offering
the specialist student detailed source-references and biblio
graphies, together with interpretation and reassessment in
the light of recent scholarship.
In the choice fif subjects there will be a balance between
breadth in some spheres and detail in others; between the
essentially political and matters scientific, economic or
social. The series cannot be a comprehensive account of
everything that has happened il~ the twentieth century, but it
will provide a guide to recent research and explain some
thing of the times of extraordinary change and complexity in
whuh we live.
The Making of the 20th Century
Series Editor. GEOFFREY WARNER
Titles in the series include
Already published
v. R. Berghahn. Germany and the Approach of War in 1914
Brian J. L. Berry, Comparative Urbanisation
Peter Calvert. Latin A merica: Internal Conflict and International Peace
Anthony Harrison. The Framework of Economic Activity: The International Economy and
the Rise of the State
Desmond King-Hele. The End of the Twentieth Century?
Peter Mansfield. The Olloman Empire and its Successors
Sally Marks. The I/lustion of Peace: International Relations in Europe
1918-1933
A. J. Nicholls. Weimar and the Rise of Hitler
B. N. Pandey. The Break-up of British India
B. N. Pandey. South and South-east Asia 1945-1979: Problems and Policies
David Rees. The Age of Containment The Cold War
Esmonde M. Robertson. Mussolini as Empire-Builder
Zara Steiner. Britain and the Origins of the First World War
Richard Storry. Japan and the Decline of the West in Asia 1894-1942
Christopher Thorne. The Approach of War 1938-1939
Hugh Tinker. Race. Conflict and the International Order
Wang Gungwu. China and the World since 1949
Ann Williams. Britain and France in the Middle East and North Africa
Elizabeth Wiskemann. Fascism in Italy: Its Development and Influence
R. T. Thomas, Britain and Vichy: The Dilemma of Anglo-French Relations 1940-1942
Titles in preparation include
Anthony Adamthwaite. Britain and France 1914-1945
Geoffrey Warner. Indo-China since 1945
Fascism in Italy:
Its Development
and Influence
Elizabeth Wiskemann
SECOND EDITION
M
MACMILLAN
EDUCATION
© Elizabeth Wiskemann 1969, 1970
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission
of this publication may be made without written permission.
No paragraph of this publication may be reproduced, copied
or transmitted save with written permission or in accordance
with the provisions of the Copyright Act 1956 (as amended).
Any person who does any unauthorised act in relation to
this publication may be liable to criminal prosecution and
civil claims for damages.
First edition 1969
Second edition 1970
Reprinted 1982, 1986
Published by
MACMILLAN EDUCATION LTD
Houndmills, Basingstoke, Hampshire RG21 2XS
and London
Companies and representatives
throughout the world
Library of Congress Catalog Card No. 69-17733
ISBN 978-0-333-07855-6 ISBN 978-1-349-15311-4 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-349-15311-4
Contents
List oj Maps vi
List ojA bbreviations vii
I The Origins of Fascism
2 The Fascist Regime: The Lateran Agreements 19
3 Doctrine and Education 34-
4 Foreign Policy up to the Spanish Civil War 49
5 Decline Sets in at Home and Abroad 63
6 Will" and Downfall 76
7 The Influence of Fascism on Hitler and National
Socialist Germany 94
8 Fascism and Austria 103
Eastern Europe log
9
10 Spain, Portugal, Mosley and Switzerland ll5
II Conclusion 120
Chronological T Dbll 122
Bibliograp~ 130
lrulct 133
Maps
I Italy since Napoleon viii
2 Italian Enipire under Mussolini 48
The maps are based on those in lta[y I947 (World Today
Series) by Elizabeth Wiskemann and are reprodm:ed by
courtesy of the Oxford University Press.
Author's Note. As my approach to this subject is solely
European and I have no qualifications whatever to make
statements about extra-European countries, the influence of
Italian Fascism on, say, South America is not touched upon
in this book.
Elizabeth Wiskemann
Abbreviations
E.N.I.M.S. Ente Nazionale per l'istruzione media e
superiore.
F.I.A.T. Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino.
F.I.O.M. Federazione Italiani Operai Metallurgici.
F.U.C.I. Federazione Universitaria Cattolica ltaliana.
G.I.L. Gioventu Italiana del Littorio.
I.M.I. Istituto Mobiliare Italiano.
I.R.I. Istituto di Ricostruzione Industriale.
S.A. Sturmabteilung.
8.S. 8chutzstaffel.
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ffi~~i·:;rl Formor Papal StakS
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MlUS
1 The Origins of Fascism
ITALY, united in 1870, was usually described as a liberal
state. Although the constitution gave the Crown great
power, the three kings, even including the first Victor
Emmanuel, accepted parliamentary control in a way in
which this was never accepted by the rulers in Vienna or
Berlin before 1914. Italian liberalism, however, had a very
narrow base. In 1882 this had been slightly broadened by
increasing the electorate from 2 per cent to 7 per cent of the
whole population. But Italy remained a narrow oligarchy
until the circumstances of the twentieth century overtook it
In the first fifteen years of this century, under the rule or
influence of Giovanni Giolitti, who was Prime Minister for
the greater part of the period, salutary changes were brought
about in Italy. It was a time of economic expansion in the
north, and Giolitti introduced useful social measures in
conjunction with the workers' and peasants' own organiza
tions. The devout Catholics, who had hitherto boycotted the
Italian State, began to vote at elections, and in 1912 the
franchise was extended so as to become almost genera1.
8·6 million Italians Were now entitled to vote, of whom at
least three million were illiterate - the illiterates had to be
thirty instead of twenty-one, or else to have completed their
military service. Giolitti, a Piedmontese and a liberal civil
servant by training, was an excellent administrator. Without
wars he might have helped to steer the liberal state through
its transformation from oligarchy to democracy. Although
he was sometimes high-handed and unscrupulous, in his day
social progress and the co-operation of different social strata
were encouraged, and there was remarkable liberty of
opinion. Giolitti's mind, moreover, was sceptically open to
