Table Of ContentFARMING FOR  
THE FUTURE:
Organic and Agroecological  
Solutions to Feed the World
BY CHRISTOPHER D. COOK, KARI HAMERSCHLAG, AND KENDRA KLEIN, PHD
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Buffer strips planted in permanent vegetation can help to manage soil and water quality and provide habitat for beneficial organisms; 
planting along contour lines can reduce soil erosion.
Acknowledgements
This report was written by Christopher D. Cook, Kari Hamerschlag, Friends of the Earth U.S. and Kendra 
Klein, PhD, Friends of the Earth U.S. with contributions from Friends of the Earth International and Friends of 
the Earth Europe. We are grateful for the extensive research and editorial support provided by Maria Deloso. 
The opinions expressed in this report do not necessarily reflect those of its supporters or reviewers. Any 
errors or omissions are the responsibility of Friends of the Earth U.S.
About Friends of the Earth
Friends of the Earth U.S., founded by David Brower in 1969, is the U.S. voice of the world’s largest federation 
of grassroots environmental groups, with a presence in 75 countries. Friends of the Earth works to defend 
the environment and champion a more healthy and just world. Through our more than 45-year history, we 
have provided crucial leadership in campaigns resulting in landmark environmental laws, precedent-setting 
legal victories and groundbreaking reforms of domestic and international regulatory, corporate and financial 
institution policies. Our current campaigns focus on promoting clean energy and solutions to climate 
change, ensuring the food we eat and products we use are safe and sustainable, and protecting marine 
ecosystems and the people who live and work near them. www.foe.org
©Copyright June 2016 by Friends of the Earth.
CONTENTS
Introduction ..............................................................................................................................................................................................4
I. Farming at the Crossroads: Ecological versus Industrial Agriculture .........................................................................6
•  Agroecology: Building a Healthy, Just and Resilient Food Future ........................................................................6
•  Expanded U.S. Organic Production Needed to Meet Growing Demand ............................................................7
•  Industrial Agriculture: Undermining Our Future Food Security .............................................................................8
II. Countering Food Industry Myths with Facts .........................................................................................................................9
•  Addressing the Root Causes of World Hunger.............................................................................................................9
•  Producing Enough Food to Feed the World ...............................................................................................................10
•  Beyond Yield: The Many Benefits of Organic Farming ............................................................................................10
•  Protecting Human and Ecological Health for Long-Term Sustainability .............................................................11
•  The Empty Promises of Genetically Engineered Crops ............................................................................................12
III. Creating a Sustainable and Just Food System to Feed the World — Now and in the Future ......................13
•  Reducing Energy Use and Greenhouse Gas Emissions ............................................................................................13
•  The Climate Solution under Our Feet ..............................................................................................................................13
•  Climate Resilience and Water Conservation .................................................................................................................13
•  Fostering Biodiversity ...........................................................................................................................................................14
•  Reducing Use of Harmful Pesticides ................................................................................................................................14
•  Finding the Natural Solution:  
Crop Rotation and Mixed Livestock System Drives Success on an Iowa Farm ...............................................14 
•  Decreasing Meat Consumption, Improving Livestock Production .......................................................................15
•  Bridging Sustainability and Food Sovereignty ............................................................................................................16
IV. Policy Solutions: Tackling Hunger’s Root Causes and Protecting Natural Resources .....................................17
•  Funding Research for a Better Food Future.................................................................................................................17
•  Major U.S. Policy Reform Must be on the Menu ..........................................................................................................17
V. Conclusion ..........................................................................................................................................................................................18
References ...............................................................................................................................................................................................19
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Introduction Furthermore, research consistently demonstrates 
that world hunger is not primarily a problem of 
There is no debate that eliminating hunger 
overall supply of food, but rather of poverty, lack 
worldwide is one of humanity’s greatest challenges 
of democracy and unequal access to land, water 
in the 21st century. However, there are radically 
and other resources, especially for women.1,2 As 
divergent visions for how to achieve this goal. Many 
a systems-based approach to food and farming, 
people equate “feeding the world” with the need 
agroecology addresses the social and economic 
to produce more food. Yet this simplistic analysis 
drivers of chronic hunger endured by nearly 800 
ignores fundamental facts about world hunger. In 
million people around the world.3 
fact, the mandate to produce more food to feed 
the world is often invoked to justify food and 
farming policies and practices that exacerbate the  Research consistently demonstrates 
conditions of hunger and undermine our ability to 
that world hunger is not a problem 
feed future generations.
of supply, but rather of poverty, lack 
Feeding the world sustainably requires that we 
of democracy and unequal access to 
protect the ecological resources that are essential 
land, water and other resources.
for producing food now and in the future. As 
this report documents, four decades of scientific 
evidence show that agroecological farming, 
Meanwhile, today’s dominant industrial food system 
including diversified organic agriculture,† is the most 
is rapidly depleting and degrading the world’s 
effective agricultural response to the environmental 
soil, water and biodiversity; intensifying climate 
challenges that threaten our future food security, 
disruption; consolidating wealth and power over 
such as climate change, soil erosion, water scarcity 
food-related resources; and accelerating poverty 
and loss of biodiversity. 
and hunger. Environmental harm caused by 
industrial agriculture costs the world $3 trillion each 
Feeding the world sustainably  year according to the United Nations Food and 
Agriculture Organization.4
requires that we protect the 
Despite this evidence, a chorus of agribusiness 
ecological resources that are 
leaders, lobbyists and policymakers insists that 
essential for producing food  
we need more of the same to feed a growing 
now and in the future.
population of up to nine billion people by 2050. As 
†  Diversified farming systems are a set of methods and tools developed to produce food sustainably by leveraging ecological diversity at plot, 
field, and landscape scales. – UC Berkeley Center for Diversified Farming Systems
Farming for the Future 4
Friends of the Earth’s 2015 report Spinning Food  The good news is that solutions are available — if 
documents, agrichemical companies and their allies  policymakers, citizens, and businesses are willing to 
spend tens of millions of dollars a year to spread  make vitally needed changes. Over the past decade, 
misleading messages about the safety and necessity  the ecological farming and food sovereignty 
of chemical-intensive industrial agriculture. This  movements have grown from a small trickle to a 
narrative — along with a political process captured  powerful stream, propelling millions of farmers, 
by corporate interests — bolsters a system that  eaters and policymakers toward a better future. 
delivers billions of dollars a year in profits to  By advancing agroecology and organic farming, 
agribusinesses. This means yet more fossil-fuel- Friends of the Earth and our allies are helping to 
intensive production and costly inputs – including  lead a groundswell of citizen, consumer and farmer 
pesticides, synthetic fertilizers, antibiotics, growth  action focused on building a sustainable, healthy 
hormones and genetically engineered seeds.  and equitable food system for all.
This report debunks three dominant myths about 
food, farming and hunger that keep society on the 
path of business as usual. We broadly characterize 
this as the path of “industrial agriculture” and 
introduce the principles of agroecology as a more 
sustainable and just foundation for our food future.
We detail extensive research showing that 
agroecological farming systems are a crucial 
foundation to feed a growing world population, 
protect farmer livelihoods and preserve ecological 
resources to sustain future generations. Our analysis 
spans both developed and developing countries. 
Finally, we discuss policy priorities for advancing 
agroecological farming, including diversified 
organic systems. While we focus primarily on the 
United States, it will take a diversity of approaches 
and innovations at both local and global scales to 
transform our food and farming systems.
In the face of climate change and rising demand 
for resources, the need for ecologically sustainable 
and resilient food production is more urgent than 
ever. “Increasing the proportion of agriculture that 
uses sustainable, organic methods of farming is 
not a choice, it’s a necessity,” says Claire Kremen, 
professor of Conservation Biology at University of 
California at Berkeley, “We simply can’t continue to 
produce food far into the future without taking care 
of our soils, water and biodiversity.”5
“Increasing the proportion of 
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organic methods of farming is not  LE 
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of our soils, water and biodiversity.”  U
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— Professor Claire Kremen, UC Berkeley Diversified, organic crop production at Cedar Circle Farm, 
Vermont.
Farming for the Future 5
I. Farming at the Crossroads:  As this report describes in detail, the research is 
clear that agroecological farming systems, including 
Ecological versus Industrial 
organic, can produce ample yields to feed a growing 
Agriculture world population while boosting agricultural 
resilience to climate change and regenerating 
Agroecology: Building a Healthy,   natural resources.
Just and Resilient Food Future
Agroecology — the science and practice of 
sustainable agriculture — creates highly productive  Agroecological farming can  
farming systems by tapping farmers’ knowledge  produce ample yields to feed  
and integrating agricultural innovations developed 
a growing world population  
over millennia with emerging scientific research.6 
while boosting agricultural 
While industrial agriculture is chemically-intensive 
and biologically-simplified, agroecology works  resilience to climate change and 
with nature as a powerful ally, adapting to and  regenerating natural resources.
regenerating nature’s resources.7 Agroecological 
farming methods include intercropping, cover 
cropping, crop rotation, conservation tillage, 
Ecological farming systems can generate 
composting, managed livestock grazing and 
many environmental benefits, including water 
combined animal and plant production. 
conservation, decreased soil erosion, reduced use 
These methods are the foundation of organic 
of synthetic chemicals and greater biodiversity 
agriculture, a certified set of production standards 
in the soil and on the farm. They can also help to 
that are rooted in agroecological principles. The 
mitigate and boost resilience to climate change. 
U.S. Department of Agriculture National Organic 
They strengthen resilience to drought and floods by 
Program describes organic agriculture as the 
improving soil structure and water-holding capacity 
application of a set of cultural, biological and 
and can decrease agriculture’s unsustainable 
mechanical practices that support the cycling of 
energy use and greenhouse gas emissions.8,9,10 
on-farm resources, promote ecological balance 
By sequestering more carbon in the soil than 
and conserve biodiversity. Organic farming can be 
conventional practices, these methods can be 
considered a subset of the agroecological farming 
an important part of climate change mitigation 
systems that exist around the world, many which are 
strategies.11,12
not certified.
Agroecology is not only about farming practices, it 
is a holistic approach that includes cultural diversity 
and social justice as important aims of our food 
and faming systems. Agroecology is a central pillar 
of food sovereignty, a global grassroots movement 
working to combat poverty, inequality and hunger 
by promoting democratically-controlled food 
production and challenging corporate power in our 
food system.13 The research is clear: world hunger is 
caused primarily by poverty, lack of democracy and 
unequal access to land, water and other resources 
and infrastructure, especially among women.14,15 
Rather than simply producing more food under 
unequal conditions, the solution to hunger hinges 
on creating more democratic and fair political and 
economic systems that expand access to resources. 
Agroecology challenges unjust power and inequality 
in society and promotes policies and practices that 
make farmers, fisherfolk, pastoralists, indigenous 
people, workers, consumers and citizens the primary 
Biological control, like the use of ladybird beetles to consume 
decision makers about food and farming.
aphids, relies on natural mechanisms of predation, parasitism 
and herbivory to control pests.
Farming for the Future 6
Expanded U.S. Organic Production Needed to Meet Growing Demand
Agroecology can refer to a  invest adequately in domestic organic agriculture 
wide range of ecologically  represents a missed opportunity to deliver many 
restorative food and  benefits to U.S. farmers, food businesses and 
farming systems, including  consumers. Research demonstrates that organic 
diversified organic  farming systems are more profitable for farmers, 
production that meets or  reduce consumer and farmworker exposure to 
exceeds the standards of the  pesticides and provide an impressive range of 
U.S. National Organic Program.  environmental benefits (see table below).22 
With $39 billion in organic sales in 2014, the U.S. 
Some have raised concerns that increasing 
accounts for 43 percent of the global market 
corporate ownership of organic brands and 
for organic food,16,17 yet it accounts for just 
farming operations has begun to mirror the 
five percent of land under organic production 
economic consolidation and mono-cropping 
worldwide.18 Less than one percent of U.S. 
associated with the industrial food system.23 
cropland is devoted to organic production.19 
Research shows that organic systems that 
Despite a 300 percent increase in certified 
employ diversification techniques like multi-
organic operations in the U.S. since 2002,20 
cropping and crop rotations perform better than 
farmers are not able to keep up with demand. 
organic monoculture systems.24 State and federal 
There is a significant need and opportunity to  research and policies should foster diversified 
increase domestic, diversified organic production  organic production and support the entry of 
in the United States.21 The government’s failure to  small and mid-scale producers into the market.
Table 1: Environmental Benefits of Organic Agriculture
Organic farming practice Environmental benefits
Crop rotation Enhances soil quality, disrupts weed, insect and disease life cycles, 
sequesters carbon and nitrogen, diversifies production 
Manure, compost, green  Enhances soil quality, sequesters carbon and nitrogen, contributes to 
manure use productivity
Cover cropping Enhances soil quality, reduces erosion, sequesters carbon and nitrogen, 
prevents dust (protects air quality), improves soil nutrients, and 
contributes to productivity
Avoidance of synthetic  Avoids contamination of surface and ground waters, enhances soil quality, 
fertilizers sequesters carbon, mitigates salinization (in many cases)
Avoidance of synthetic  Enhances biodiversity, improves air quality, enhances soil quality, assists 
pesticides in effective pest management, prevents harm to pollinators, reduces 
costs of chemical inputs, and reduces exposure of farmworkers and rural 
communities to harmful pesticides
Planting habitat corridors,  Enhances biodiversity, supports biological pest management, provides 
borders, and/or insectaries wildlife habitat
Buffer areas Improves water quality, enhances biodiversity, prevents wind erosion
Source: Adapted from Organic Farming for Health and Prosperity. OFRF Executive Summary 2011
Farming for the Future 7
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Monocultures rely on high inputs of synthetic fertilizer and pesticides to manage fertility, pests and disease.
Industrial Agriculture: Undermining our  •	 Generation of major greenhouse gas emissions 
Future Food Security and significant vulnerability to climate change.34
Industrial agriculture relies on monocultures, large- •	 Widespread pesticide and fertilizer pollution of 
scale energy-intensive operations and chemical  water ways and oceanic “dead zones” linked to 
inputs that are harmful to humans and the planet.  fertilizer runoff.35
This toxic mix includes synthetic pesticides,  •	 Large-scale habitat and biodiversity losses 
fertilizers, growth hormones, antibiotics and crops  threatening essential species, including 
that are genetically engineered to be herbicide  pollinators.36,37
tolerant. These factory-like industrial practices are 
•	 Rapidly dwindling genetic diversity of seeds, 
undermining the ecosystems we depend on to 
crops and livestock breeds.38 
grow food; depleting and degrading the world’s 
soil, water and biodiversity; and intensifying climate  •	 Severe animal suffering.39 
disruption.25 
•	 Impoverishment of farmers and agricultural 
The dominant industrial food system also generates  workers worldwide.40,41 
enormous social and public health costs. The 
•	 Reduced effectiveness of antibiotics to fight 
political and economic structures underlying 
human diseases.42,43 
the global food system are consolidating 
•	 Nearly 800 million people suffering from hunger, 
wealth and power over food-related resources 
1.9 billion overweight or obese, and billions spent 
and accelerating world poverty and hunger.26 
on diet-related diseases.44,45
Meanwhile, overconsumption of unhealthy foods 
in some regions drives rising rates of chronic  •	 Rapid loss and concentration of farmlands 
diseases such as obesity and type 2 diabetes.27 A  and water access due to land grabs and 
growing body of evidence links certain classes of  development.46,47
agricultural pesticides to illnesses including cancers, 
•	 Poverty wages for millions of agricultural and 
neurodevelopmental disorders, reproductive 
food industry workers who suffer high rates of 
disorders, asthma, birth defects and acute 
injury and chronic illness.48,49
poisonings.28,29 These diseases disproportionately 
•	 Increased obesity and type 2 diabetes epidemics 
impact low income communities and people of 
in some countries and pesticide-related diseases 
color in the U.S. and around the world. Together, the 
suffered disproportionately by farm workers and 
global economic cost of premature death, disability 
rural communities worldwide.50 
and disease connected to food production and 
consumption is hundreds of billions of dollars a  “Unveiling the hidden costs of mainstream 
year.30,31 agriculture. . . [shows] that investing in conversion 
to sustainable food and agriculture systems is a 
Evidence of industrial agriculture’s destructive path 
much cheaper option than current expenditures for 
is everywhere:
environmental mitigation and public health,” says 
•	 Rapid depletion and degradation of soil and 
Nadia El-Hage Scialabba of the United Nation’s 
water resources.32,33
Food and Agriculture Organizations (FAO).
Farming for the Future 8
II. Countering Food Industry  hunger. By concentrating food sector profits, market 
control and access to seeds and land among a 
Myths with Facts
handful of corporations, and by generating profits 
In this section we tackle three pervasive  based on poverty wages and low crop prices 
misconceptions about the food system. These  for farmers, this system impoverishes millions of 
misleading claims, which are propagated by  farmers and workers across the globe.59 From Africa 
agribusiness, philanthropic and international  and Asia to Latin America and the U.S., corporate 
institutions and policymakers, are used to justify  control over markets and supply chains is displacing 
policies, research and markets that propel  millions of small-scale farmers.60,61 Massive land 
destructive agricultural practices and concentrate  grabs around the world deprive small farmers — 
wealth and power in the hands of the few. The facts  especially women — of land and resources needed 
illustrate why the current industrial food system is  to feed their families and build thriving, food-secure 
untenable — and why we must continue to build a  communities.62 These dynamics have created 
more sustainable and just food system rooted in  some of the world’s highest rates of poverty and 
agroecological principles.  hunger among small-scale food producers and 
rural communities worldwide.63 Farm laborers 
Addressing the Root Causes of World 
and food industry workers across the world suffer 
Hunger
poverty wages and high rates of injury and chronic 
Myth: We must significantly increase food  illness.64,65 In the U.S., consistently low wages make 
production to feed the world.  food system workers twice as likely as others to 
receive federal food assistance.66 
Facts: Scientists estimate that farmers already 
produce enough food to feed 10 billion people —  Making matters worse, much of agricultural 
far more than the current population of roughly 7.3  production worldwide is not devoted to feeding 
billion.51 Still, nearly 800 million go hungry every  people. In the U.S., 36 percent of all corn is used to 
day and many more are undernourished.52 Research  feed livestock, another 40 percent for biofuels.67 
consistently demonstrates that world hunger is not  This means vast amounts of farmland that could 
a problem of supply, but rather of poverty, lack of  produce a variety of nutritious foods are locked 
democracy and unequal access to land, water and  up in feed and fuel production. These trends are 
other resources.53,54 replicated globally: roughly one-third of grain 
produced worldwide becomes animal feed while 
Solution: Solving world hunger requires policies and 
17 percent goes to ethanol and other biofuels.68 
programs that democratize access to food, arable 
Devoting land and food crops to biofuel production 
land, water, credit and fair markets, particularly for 
is particularly harmful, as it raises food prices 
women. To address hunger and poverty sustainably, 
and diverts land and resources away from food 
we must expand public investment in agroecological 
production.69 Finally, approximately one-third of the 
farming, especially among the small food producers 
food that is produced globally (1.3 billion tons) never 
who make up more than 90 percent of all farmers 
makes it to the plate because it is lost to waste and 
worldwide.55 We must also reduce global food waste 
spoilage or left in the field.70 
and shift consumption towards plant-based foods 
(particularly in the U.S. and other wealthy countries  The Economist summarized the shortcomings of 
that consume large amounts of meat) and away  the assumption that world hunger is an issue of 
from growing feed for livestock and biofuels. supply in a February 2011 special report, stating, 
“Indeed, the world produces more than just enough 
Smallholders are the backbone of world food 
to go round. Allowing for all the food that could be 
supply; they represent over 90 percent of farmers 
eaten but is turned into biofuels, and the staggering 
worldwide and provide more than 80 percent of the 
amounts wasted on the way, farmers are already 
food consumed throughout much of the developing 
producing much more than is required — more 
world, particularly Southern Asia and sub-Saharan 
than twice the minimum nutritional needs by some 
Africa.56 Fostering small farmers’ ability to feed 
measures. If there is a food problem, it does not look 
themselves and their communities is fundamental to 
like a technical or biological one.”71 
food security and poverty reduction, especially for 
more than 1 billion poor, rural people worldwide.57,58
The dominant industrial food system is rife with 
systemic inequalities that exacerbate poverty and 
Farming for the Future 9
Producing Enough Food to Feed the  nutritious food that contains less (or no) pesticide 
World  residues and provide multiple ecosystem benefits 
(see Figure 1, next page).80 
Myth: Organic farming cannot produce enough food 
to feed the world.
Facts: A growing body of research shows that  Organic farming systems 
agroecological farming systems, including organic  consistently outperform 
agriculture, can yield more than enough food 
conventional systems on a broad 
to feed a growing population while generating 
set of health and sustainability 
significant economic, health and environmental 
benefits.72,73 By improving soil, conserving water and  criteria - they are more profitable 
protecting biodiversity, ecological farming methods  for farmers, deliver equally or more 
create greater resilience than industrial agriculture 
nutritious food that contains less (or 
to the impacts of climate change.
no) pesticide residues and provide 
Solution: To ensure ample yields while protecting 
multiple ecosystem benefits.
natural resources, we must invest more public 
funds in agroecological farming research, technical 
assistance, credit access and other incentives to 
Protecting and regenerating natural resources 
expand regional, organic and diversified farming 
ensures our ability to produce ample food for 
systems.
future generations. Well-managed organic systems 
While organic systems, on average, produce lower 
can reduce soil erosion, protect water resources, 
yields than conventional farming systems, research 
produce fewer greenhouse gases, store more carbon 
has found that organic can match or exceed 
in the soil, provide more pollinator habitat and 
conventional yields depending on the crop, growing 
increase the water-holding capacity of soils.81 By 
conditions and management practices.74,75,76,77 A 
building soils and developing locally-adapted seeds, 
UC Berkeley meta-analysis of 115 studies found 
organic and other agroecological methods can help 
that yields for organic agriculture are higher than 
to protect yields amid the weather extremes and 
previously thought when farmers use diversification 
seasonal disruptions of climate change.82,83 
techniques such as multiple cropping and crop 
Organic farming can also provide greater economic 
rotation. In these cases, the yield gap shrinks to 
benefits to farmers. A meta-analysis of 40 years 
less than 10 percent. For some crops — including 
of studies of 55 crops grown on five continents 
legumes, oats, tomatoes and apples — the analysis 
found that organic agriculture increased farmers’ 
found no significant yield difference.78 Research 
profitability by 22-35 percent over non-organic 
from the U.S. Department of Agriculture (USDA) 
production.84 In the U.S., studies show that organic 
shows that agroecological grain production using 
farmers earn a higher net return than do their 
fewer synthetic chemicals can match or exceed 
conventional counterparts due to lower input costs 
U.S. industrial grain yields while providing equal or 
and higher price premiums.85,86 
higher profits to farmers and dramatically reducing 
freshwater toxicity.79  Organic and other ecological farming methods can 
play a particularly important role in developing 
Beyond Yield: The Many Benefits of Organic 
nations because they improve yield while 
Farming
maintaining or lowering the costs of production. 
When assessing the productivity of farming  By prioritizing farmer knowledge and innovation 
systems, we must go beyond a narrow focus on  over costly inputs like pesticides and genetically 
yield. While conventional farming systems have  engineered seeds, agroecological methods 
achieved higher yields over the past half century,  can be more accessible to low-income farmers. 
they have too often done so at great expense to  According to the United Nations Environment 
human health, workers’ rights, animal welfare and  Programme (UNEP), the majority of chronically 
the environment. If we take the entire system into  hungry people in developing countries are small 
account, research shows that organic approaches  farmers who are often too poor to purchase 
consistently outperform conventional on a broad set  inputs and are marginalized from markets.87 A UN 
of health and sustainability criteria. According to a  report on organic agriculture and food security 
recent meta-analysis, organic farming systems are  in Africa found that organic production systems 
more profitable for farmers, deliver equally or more  outperformed traditional systems and yielded on 
Farming for the Future 10
Description:organic methods of farming is not a choice, it’s a necessity. We simply can’t continue to produce food far into the future without taking care