Farmers' perspectives with regard to crop production: an analysis of

13 Pages·2014·0.2 MB·English

by  Alen Manyevere

Journalof AgricultureandRuralDevelopmentin the TropicsandSubtropics
Vol. 115No. 1(2014)41–53
urn:nbn:de:hebis:34-2014020344887 ISSN:1612-9830–journalonline:www.jarts.info
Farmers’ perspectives with regard to crop production:
an analysis of Nkonkobe Municipality, South Africa
Alen Manyeverea,∗, Pardon Muchaonyerwab,
Michiel C. Lakera, Pearson Nyari Stephano Mnkenia
aAgronomyDepartment,FacultyofScienceandAgriculture.UniversityofFortHare,Alice5700,SouthAfrica
bSchoolofAgricultural,EarthandEnvironmentalSciences,UniversityofKwaZulu-Natal,Scottsville3209,SouthAfrica
Abstract
Thisexploratorystudyevaluatedbiophysical,culturalandsocio-economicfactorsaffectingcropproductionandland
utilisationintheNkonkobeMunicipality,SouthAfrica.Thestudysoughttoestablishwhatfarmersintheareaperceive
asseriousthreatstocropproduction,driversforlandabandonment,andhowbestcurrentagriculturalproductioncould
be intensified. The farmers’ perspectives were assessed through interviews using semi-structured and open-ended
questionnaires. Theresultsofthestudyrevealeddecliningcropproductivityandincreaseinlandabandonmentinthe
Municipality.Thebiophysicaldriversoflandabandonmentwerelowanderraticrainfallandlanddegradationwhilethe
socio-economicdriverswerelabourshortagesduetooldageandyouthmovementtocities,lackoffarmingequipment
andsecurityconcerns. Themostabandonedcropsweremaize,sorghumandwheat. Thistrendwasattributedtothe
labourintensivenessofcerealproductionandashiftindietarypreferencetopurchasedrice.Thesefindingsshouldbe
factoredinanyprogrammesthatseektoincreaselandutilisationandcropproductivityintheMunicipality.
Keywords: cropproduction,degradation,erraticrainfall,foodsecurity,landabandonment
1 Introduction of assets for agricultural production; diminishing farm
sizes;changestogovernmentsupportforirrigatedagri-
Many agricultural projects have failed because of a
culture after the regime change in 1994; poor health
lackofknowledgeofthebiophysical,culturalandsocio-
and education (Vink & Van Rooyen, 2009; Baiphethi
economicvariablesaffectingagricultureandruralliveli-
& Jacobs, 2009); limited availability of suitable land
hoods(FAO,1997). Thesituationispronouncedinfor-
(VanAverbeke&Marais,1991;VanAverbeke&Ben-
merhomelandsofSouthAfrica,includingtheTranskei
nett,2007;Shackletonetal.,2013);able-bodiedyoung
and Ciskei in the Eastern Cape Province, where there
menbeingawayasmigrantlabourersandincreasedde-
has been a general decline in agricultural production
pendencyongovernmentgrantssince1994(Hebinck&
(Hebinck&VanAverbeke,2007). Reasonsforthisde-
VanAverbeke,2007). Expenditureon foodhas conse-
cline in crop production in former homelands include
quently risen to between 60–80% of the total income
crop diseases; adverse climate and water deficits; lack
forlow-incomehouseholds(Baiphethi&Jacobs,2009).
Identificationanddevelopmentofappropriateinterven-
∗Correspondingauthor
tion measures to stimulate foodproductionand reduce
AgronomyDepartment,FacultyofScienceandAgriculture,
UniversityofFortHare,P.BagX1314,Alice5700.SouthAfrica relianceonpurchasedfoodarethereforenecessary.
Email:[email protected];Phone:[phone]
42 A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53
AreconnaissanceofNkonkobeMunicipalityshowed (iii) high potential land that has never been cultivated.
thatlargeareasofpreviouslycultivatedlandhavebeen To optimise the use of such land resources, Aliber &
abandoned.AccordingtoanunpublishedreportbyVan Hart (2009)called for greater support of local farmers
Averbekein2003,quotedbyLaker(2004b),asurveyof and an understanding of their thinking. Participatory
fourruralvillagesintheTyumevalleyinNkonkobeMu- studiescoulddeterminewhatthelocalfarmersperceive
nicipalityfoundthat50–80%ofthecultivatedareashad as serious threats to crop production; reasons for land
beenabandoned.Largescaleabandonmentofcultivated abandonment;andhowbestcurrentagriculturalproduc-
fieldsisalsofoundinotherpartsoftheworld. Astudy tioncouldbeintensifiedtoreducepressureonmarginal
onchangesinlandusepatternsinWestBahiadistrictof lands(Baiphethi&Jacobs,2009).Currentlygrownand
Brazilfoundthatbetween1985and2000about1.6mil- future crops also need to be investigated. This infor-
lion ha land were cleared and brought into cultivation mationcouldpavethewayforevaluationofalternative
(Batistella & Valladares, 2009). During the same pe- cropsinordertodetermineiftheycouldbegrownsuc-
riodabout320,000hathatwerecultivatedin1985were cessfullyinthisregion.
abandoned, i.e. about 20% as much land was aban- The aim of the present study was to determine lo-
donedaswasbroughtundernewcultivationduringthat cal farmers’ perspectives with regard to crop produc-
period. In contrast the proportionof abandoned fields tionasabasisforagriculturaldevelopment,inorderto
intheWildCoastregionoftheformerTranskeihome- achieve poverty alleviation and improve livelihoods in
landintheEasternCapewasalmostinsignificant,being NkonkobeMunicipality.Thespecificobjectiveswere(i)
only1.5%in1961and6.9%in2009(Shackletonetal., toestablishdemographicpatternsinNkonkobeMunici-
2013). The difference is that the latter has higher an- palityandtheirlikelyeffectonagriculturalproduction;
nual rainfall (800 to 1,000mm) and much more stable (ii)todetermineconstraintsoncropproductionandop-
highquality soils than the problemareas in Nkonkobe timumlandutilisation;(iii)toidentifyreasonsforaban-
Municipality. donment of croplands, and (iv) to determine farmers’
Many of the abandoned cultivated fields in perspectivesontheirpast, present,andfuturecropping
Nkonkobe Municipality show very severe gully preferences.
erosion (D’Huyvetter, 1985). In a 1998 unpublished
document, Kakembo, quoted by Laker (2004a), even 2 Materialsandmethods
refers to abandoned cultivated fields in this region as
gully erosion “hot spots”. There are, however, also 2.1 Studyarea
many abandoned fields that do not show any signs of The Nkonkobe Municipality is situated in the Am-
erosion. It would be very importantto determinewhy athole District of the Eastern Cape province, South
suchfieldswereabandonedandwhichofthemcouldbe Africa, between 32°21(cid:2) and 33°07(cid:2) south and 26°24(cid:2)
recommendedforcultivationagain. and 27°13(cid:2) east (Figure 1). It has a total land area
In Nkonkobe Municipality governmentservices and of3,725km2 andapopulationof133,434(STATSSA,
employmentisthebiggestcontributortotheGDP,con- 2001). TheMunicipalityischaracterisedbyhighlevels
tributing 44% of the gross domestic product (GDP), ofunemployment,estimatedatover85%oftheindigent
with agriculture the second largest contributor, with population (IDP, 2008). Official figures revealed that
a market share of 17% (IDP, 2008). There is some the economywas able to create jobs for only 3.5% of
tourism potential, but no mining potential and indus- theeconomicallyactivepopulation(STATSSA,2001).
trial potential is very limited. It is thereforenecessary For their livelihood, the population depended on pub-
that the productivity of available agricultural land be licsectoremployment(whichcontributestothebulkof
maximisedtoincreasethecontributionofagricultureto income),governmentgrants, agricultureandmigratory
the GDP. There are three categories of land that need labour (Hebinck & Van Averbeke, 2007). Small-scale
optimisation, i.e. (i) the previously highly productive agricultureisdominatedbyvegetableandlivestockpro-
whitecommercialfarms,whichwereboughtoutbythe ductioninprojectsthataremainlyfundedbytheDepart-
apartheidgovernmentduringthe late 1970s and incor- mentofAgriculture. Othereconomicactivitiesinclude
porated into the then Ciskei as part of the homeland tourism,forestryandsheepandwoolproduction(IDP,
consolidationprocess,butarepresentlyabandonedand 2008).
unproductive,(ii)someofthepreviouscultivatednative Forthisstudythemunicipalitywasdividedintoseven
lands that lie abandonedfor which the reasons are yet units,basedongeomorphology,climateandsoils(Fig-
tobe establishedthat mayhave croppingpotentialand ure 1). The Hogsback/ Katberg unit is a high rainfall
A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53 43
Fig.1:MapoftheNkonkobeLocalMunicipality
mountainous area, with tourism and forestry as main sionsarealsofoundonhigherground,especiallyinthe
enterprises and very limited cropping. The Alice and east(Laker,1978).
Sheshegu units are characterised by low rainfall and The Middledrift unit consists of two parts. One is
poorqualitysoils andarethus usedalmostexclusively alongtheKeiskammaRiveraroundMiddledrift,which
for extensive grazing. The Amatola unit has signifi- is made up of a combination of river valleys that are
cantcroppingpotential,butisasmallisolatedunitsur- dry,withhighagriculturalpotentialunderirrigation,and
roundedby steep mountains. Thus this study was car- semi-arid hills with poor quality soils (Laker, 1978).
riedoutintheKatRiver,TyumeRiverandMiddledrift Theotheris alargesectionontheeasternboundaryof
units, where most of the agricultural activities in the theMunicipality,southoftheroadfromMiddledriftto
Municipalitytakeplace. Debe Nek, with limited cropping potential. Mean an-
TheKatRivercatchmentconsistsoftwomainunits, nualprecipitationatMiddledriftisabout500mm. Itis
namely the sub-humid upper catchment and the semi- characterized by low rainfall and high potential evap-
arid middle catchment around Fort Beaufort, with an- otranspiration(PET) in January, causing a severe mid-
nual rainfall approximately 800mm and 500mm, re- summerdrought(Laker,1978). Parentmaterialon the
spectively. Farming in the Kat River catchment is river terraces is alluvium, with mudstones, shales and
mainlycommercial;comprisingbothfullyfledgedcom- dolerite intrusions dominating the land away from the
mercialfarmersandemergingfarmersonhighlydevel- alluvialterraces.
opedformerwhitecommercialfarms,whichwereincor-
poratedintotheCiskeiaspartofthehomelandconsol- 2.2 Farmerinterviews
idationprogrammeinthelate1970s. Thelatterinclude Information on farmers’ perspectives was obtained
some formerhighlyproductiveirrigatedfarms, mainly throughsemi-structuredandopen-endedinterviews. To
citrus, on which most of the cropping has been aban- reducetheresponseerrorandclarifyunclearquestions
doned. a pilot test of a draft questionnaire was run with 15
The semi-arid Tyume River catchment lies between selected farmers from each of the three units, exten-
the escarpment of the Amatola Mountains and Alice, sion workers and enumerators. A final questionnaire
with rainfall between 580mm at Lovedale near Alice wasthenproducedtouseforinterviewingfarmers. Be-
and 611mm at Pleasant View closer to the mountains cause we were dealing with a mainly traditional rural
(Laker,1978).Thisareaincludesbothtraditionalsmall- setting where croplands are allocated by tribal author-
scale farming areas and former commercial farms, in- ities to some individuals, no statistical records distin-
cludingsomeformerhighlyproductivecitrusfarmsthat guishing between total households and active farmers
havecollapsed. Alluviumsarefoundonterracesalong were available. It was, therefore, impossible to accu-
theTyumeRiverandonfloodplainsofseasonalstreams, ratelyestablishthefarmerpopulationsize. Inthissce-
where most cultivation is carried out. Doleritic intru- nario,all farmerswhoattendedthe inductionmeetings
44 A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53
at which the research objectives were explained were thedegreeoflimitationandthefrequencyofoccurrence
afterwardsincludedforindividualinterviews.Onehun- ofthefactor,usingtheformula:
dred and seventy-five farmers, consisting of 69 from
the Tyume, 52 from the Kat and 54 from the Mid- WF =((H1F1)+(H2F2)+(H3F3))/100
dledriftunitwereinterviewed. Asnapsurveywasalso
Where H is the degreeof limitation on a scale of 1–3,
carried out on 27 commercial and emerging farming
representinglow, moderate and high respectively; F is
units. Emergingfarmersinthisstudywereblackfarm-
thefrequency.
ers who were allocated previously white-owned com-
mercialagriculturallandunderthegovernmentlandre- Croprankingswerealsoweightedusingtheformula:
form programme, including those who received land
WF =((R1F1)+(R2F2)+... +(R5F5))/100
duringtheCiskeihomelandconsolidationprocessinthe
1970s. Since establishedcommercialfarmerswere of-
WhereRistherankingofthecroponascaleof1–5.
fering technical assistance to emerging farmers, they
wereusedaskeyinformantstovalidateinformationpro-
videdbytheemergingcommercialfarmers. Keyinfor-
3 Results
mantsalsogavebackgroundhistoryregardingthefarms,
managementpracticesandsoil fertilityproblemsfaced
3.1 Demographiccharacteristicsofthefarmingcom-
bythefarmers. Conversationsweresteeredtowardsse-
munity
lectedtopics,includingdemographicinformation,using
the defined criteria used in census (STATS SA, 2001); Of the smallholdercommunalfarmersin the Tyume
proportionoflandnotinuseandreasonsforlandaban- catchment,37%,27%and34%werein30–54,55–64
donment; factorslimitingcropproduction; andcurrent and≥65agegroups,respectively,whileinMiddledrift,
andfuturecrops. these age groups constituted30%, 27% and 40%, re-
spectively. IntheKatRivercatchment,27%,24%and
2.3 Dataanalysis 30% of the farmers were in age groups 30–54, 55–64
For the purposes of this study an active farmer was andgreaterthan65,respectively(Table1).
definedastheunitofanalysis. Nohouseholdinforma- Thefarmershadreasonableexperience,withatleast
tionwascapturedbecausefromthepilotstudythesize 73%oftherespondentsinthethreeareashavingmore
ofthefamily,genderandincomedidnotfeaturepromi- than 5 years’ experience, while about 25%, 34% and
nentlyandwerethereforeassumednotimportant.Since 36% of the farmers in Tyume, Middledrift and Kat
85% of the farmers were indigent, an assumptionwas River, respectively had more than 20 years of farming
madethatthefarmers(excludingthecommercialfarm- experience.
ers) were resource poor, and below the poverty datum
Literacylevelswere lowon smallholderfarms, with
line(Mondeetal.,2005).
51%, 41% and 49% of the interviewed farmers at
Qualitative and quantitative data were summarised Tyume, Middledrift and Kat being illiterate. Very few
and analysed using Microsoft Excel and SPSS (SPSS farmershadtertiaryeducation,with7%(mostlyretired
Inc.,2008)software.Thedescriptivestatisticswasused teachers)atTyumeandMiddledrift,butnoneintheKat
togeneratefrequencytablesandtheunitofanalysiswas River valley. Twenty seven percent of the farmers in
defined.Theliteracyratewasobtainedbyassumingthat Middledrift,24%inKatand17%inTyume,hadcom-
anypersonwhohadcompletedatleastgrade7waslit- pletedaseniorcertificate.
erate(SDFP,2004;STATSSA,2001).Correlationtests
Ofthesmallholdercommunalfarmers,intheTyume
betweenlandabandonmentandthemaindriversofland
catchment,MiddledriftandKatcatchment,29%,52%
abandonment such as high temperatures, low rainfall,
and30%,respectively,werepart-timefarmersandwere
soil degradation, farm machinery, security and migra-
employed elsewhere to supplement their income. The
tionwereperformedtoestablishthemainfactorslead-
remainder of the farmers were farming on a full-time
ingtolandabandonment.
basis(Table1).
The order of importance of crops grown and limi-
tations to crop production in the area were ranked by
3.2 Landutilisationforcropproduction
weightingthefactors. Aweightedaverageiscalculated
foreachfactorbymultiplyingtheitemfrequencybythe Ninety-five percent of the smallholder communal
numericalrating(Azar,1999). Limitationstocroppro- farmersintheTyumevalleydonotfullyutilisetheirland
duction were weighted by summing up the product of for crop production,with 46% of them indicating that
A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53 45
Table1:DemographicdataoffarmersatNkonkobeMunicipality.
Traditionalsmall-scalefarmers Commercial
Demographiccategory farmers
TyumeRivercatchment Middledrift KatRivercatchment
(%)n=27
(%)n=69 (%)n=54 (%)n=52
Ageoffarmers
24–29 2 2 12 8
30–54 37 30 27 43
55–64 27 27 24 29
>65 34 40 30 20
Farmingexperience(years)
<5 19 27 27
5–10 22 18 15 28
11–20 34 21 15 51
>20 25 34 36 21
Levelsofeducation
Primaryeducation(Grade7) 51 41 49 –
Grades8–10 25 25 21 –
Seniorcertificate(Grade12) 17 27 24 43
Tertiary 7 7 0 57
Statusoffarmers
Part-time 29 52 30 54
Full-time 71 48 70 46
morethanhalfoftheirlandhadbeenabandoned. Cor- IntheMiddledriftarea,10%ofthefarmersindicated
relation results showed that the amount of abandoned thattheyfullyutilisedtheirland,withatleast61%using
land was strongly influenced by lack of farm machin- lessthanthreequartersofthepreviouslycultivatedland.
ery(0.550),soildegradation(0.467),shortageofinputs The amount of abandonedland was influencedmainly
(0.326)andlowrainfall(0.357)(Table2). by low rainfall (r=0.360), shortage of farm machinery
(r=0.346)andsoildegradation(r=0.262).
IntheKat Rivercatchment,62% ofthefarmersuse
Table2:Correlationsbetweenlandabandonmentandfactors only about 25% of the available land and 39% of the
influencinglandabandonment.
farmershadcompletelyabandonedtheavailablearable
land. Shortages of inputs (r=380), farm machinery
Drivingfactors Landabandonment (0.267)and soil degradation(r=0.236)were the major
Tyume Middledrift Kat factorsthatledtoincreasedlandabandonment.
Temperature 0.289** 0.017 0.147
3.3 Limitationstocropproduction
Lowrainfall 0.357** 0.360** 0.035
The main limiting factors to crop production, as
Labourshortages 0.184* 0.100 0.088
ranked by smallholder farmers in the Tyume River
Lackofinterest 0.194* 0.109 0.073
catchment were soil degradation, farming equipment,
Theft 0.084 0.184* 0.051
low and erratic rainfall, lack of security and shortage
Shortageoffarmmachinery 0.550** 0.346** 0.267**
offertiliserandseed(Table3). Thefarmersmentioned
Poorinfrastructure 0.089 0.003
thatsoilerosion,poorsoilfertilityandcompactionwere
Diseaseprevalence 0.0128 0.073 0.176*
themainsoil-relatedproblemsexperiencedinthearea.
Soildegradation 0.467** 0.262** 0.236**
In Middledrift, the order of importance was similar to
Shortageofinputs 0.326** 0.107 0.380**
Tyume,butlowrainfallwasthesecondmostimportant
**Correlationissignificantatthe0.01level. factoraftersoildegradation.IntheKatcatchment,farm-
*Correlationissignificantatthe0.05level.
ers cited soil degradation and pests and disease as the
46 A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53
most important factors limiting crop production, with Onthesmallholderfarms,maize,potatoes,pumpkin
erraticrainfallandlackofsecuritybeinglessimportant and onions were grown mainly for subsistence, while
than in the Tyume and Middledrift catchments. Other spinach, cabbage and beans were grown for consump-
factorsoflessimportanceinthethreecommunalfarm- tion and sale. Butternut, beetroot and carrots (minor
ing areas were labour shortages, limited land and lack crops) were grown primarily for family consumption.
offarminginterestandexpertise. Apartfrommaize,noothercerealcropwasgrown,and
beansweretheonlyleguminouscropgrowntosupple-
3.4 Typesofcropsgrown ment protein intake. Formerly grown crops most ex-
Maizewasrankedasthemostcommoncropgrownby cluded in the Tyume catchment by about 25%, 24%,
smallholderfarmersin the three communalareas. The 22%, 19% and 15% of the respondents were wheat,
other important crops grown by the smallholder farm- maize, sorghum,beansandpumpkin,respectively(Ta-
ers included potatoes, cabbage, spinach and onions in ble5).Thefarmersmentionedlossofinterestandshort-
Tyume; and spinach, cabbage, potatoes and beans in age of farming machinery as reasons for not growing
Middledrift. In the Kat catchment, the crops are cab- wheat and sorghum, while low rainfall, lack of secu-
bage, spinach, potatoes and butternut (Table 4). The rity andsoil degradationwere givenas reasons fornot
othersignificantbutminorcropsgrownbysmallholder growing maize, beans and pumpkin, respectively. In
farmers in the three communal areas were pumpkin, the Middledriftregion, wheat (36%), sorghum(30%),
beetrootandcarrots. maizeandbeans(25%)andpeas(16%)werethemost
Table3:Limitationstocropproduction,asidentifiedbysmallholderfarmers.
TyumeRivercatchment Middledrift KatRivercatchment
Factor
Score Rank Score Rank Score Rank
Soil-relatedproblems 1.64 1 1.75 1 1.56 1
Lowanderraticrainfallandextremetemperatures 1.53 3 1.67 2 1.24 4
Farmingequipment 1.54 2 1.27 3 1.42 3
Pestsanddisease 1.41 4 1.05 4 1.54 2
Security 0.75 5 0.98 5 0.24 7
Shortageofinputs 0.69 6 0.57 6 0.64 5
Labourshortages 0.32 7 0.50 7 0.61 6
Limitedland 0.12 8 0.16 9 0.06 9
Lackoffarminginterest 0.09 9 0.32 8 0.12 8
Lackofexpertise – 10 – 0.07 10
Table4:MaincropsgrownbysmallholderfarmersinNkonkobeMunicipality.
TyumeRivercatchment Middledrift KatRivercatchment
Crop
Score Rank Reason* Score Rank Reason* Score Rank Reason*
Maize 2.29 2 2 2.75 1 2 2.18 1 2
Potatoes 2.31 1 2 1.54 4 2 1.56 4 2
Cabbage 1.87 3 2 1.76 3 3 1.91 2 2
Spinach 1.34 4 3 1.84 2 3 1.63 3 3
Onions 0.46 9 3 0.78 7 2 0.69 8 3
Pumpkin 0.90 8 2 0.98 6 2 0.70 7 2
Butternut 1.19 5 5 0.73 8 3 0.94 5 2
Beans 1.16 6 3 1.11 5 2 0.46 9 3
Beetroot 1.09 7 3 0.57 10 2 0.40 10 3
Carrots 0.46 10 2 0.73 8 3 0.76 6 3
*1=commercial;2=subsistence;3=bothcommercialandsubsistence
A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53 47
Table5:FormerlygrowncropsmostexcludedbysmallholderfarmersinNkonkobeMunicipality.
TyumeRivervalley Middledrift KatRivervalley
Crop
Frequency* Frequency* Frequency*
Reason† Reason† Reason†
(%)n=69 (%)n=54 (%)n=52
Wheat 22 4 36 10 18 3,8
Maize 24 2 25 10,11,12 21 4,11
Sorghum 22 4,10 30 10 18 3,4
Beans 19 11 25 2,5 12 2
Peas – – 16 4,8,9 – –
Pumpkin 15 5 – – – –
Potatoes – – – – 15 2,12
*Farmerswereaskedtogive5reasonseach,hencethetotalfrequencymayexceed100%.
†2=lowrainfall;3=labourshortages;4=lackofinterest;5=soildegradation;8=theft;9=limitedland;
10=farmmachinery;11=fencing;12=pestsanddisease;13=inputs
Table6:CropsthatsmallholderfarmersinNkonkobeMunicipalityshowaninterestingrowinginfuture.
TyumeRivervalley Middledrift KatRivervalley
Crop
Frequency* Frequency* Frequency*
Reason† Reason† Reason†
(%)n=69 (%)n=54 (%)n=52
Peas 19 2 27 2 12 2
Cabbages 25 1 14 1 15 1
Potatoes – 23 2 12 1
Tomatoes 20 1 21 1
Butternut 25 1 14 1 12 1
Carrots 19 1 16 1,2
Maize 15 2 15 2 9 2
Sorghum 12 2 16 2 6 2
Wheat 14 2 – 2 7 2
Beans – – 18 1,2 18 1
*Reason:1=sale;2=consumption
excluded crops. Shortages of farm machinery were werethemainreasonsfornotgrowingbeansandpota-
the major reason for not growing wheat, maize and toesrespectivelyintheKatcatchment(Table5).
sorghum. Soil degradationand low rainfall were cited Farmers in Tyume catchment expressed interest in
asreasonsforabandoningbeancrops,whilelossofin- growingcabbageandbutternut(25%),tomatoes(20%),
terestwasthemainreasonfornotgrowingpeas.Small- peasandcarrots(19%)andmaize(15%)inthefuture,
holderfarmersintheKatRivercatchmentindicatedthat citingemerginglocalmarketsinthenearbytownofAl-
the most excluded crops were also maize, wheat and ice forcabbage, butternut, tomatoes andcarrots, while
sorghum, potatoes, and beans. Labour shortages, loss maize and peas were intended for family consumption
of interest (due to preference of processed food from (Table6). About14%and12%oftherespondentsin-
shops) and insecurity due to crop destruction by ani- dicatedthattheywouldinfuturewanttogrowsorghum
malswerelistedasmajorreasonsfornotgrowingmaize, and wheat, respectively. Sorghum would be used for
wheatandsorghum. Lowrainfallandpestsanddisease brewing traditional beer, while wheat would be pre-
ferredforfoodsecurity.
48 A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53
Peas (27%), potatoes (23%), beans (18%), carrots 2007)suggestedthatgrantsandremittancesgavefarm-
and sorghum (16%) and maize (15%) were the most ersstart-upcapitaltoinvestinagriculturalactivitiesbut
preferred crops for future cultivation in Middledrift. could also create a dependency syndrome. The lat-
Farmers want to grow peas, potatoes, maize, sorghum ter viewwas supportedbyresponsesfromsome ofthe
andwheatforfoodsecurity,whilebutternut,carrotsand farmersduringthissurvey.
beanswouldbegrownforsale. Old age could have contributed to low land utilisa-
Tomatoes(21%), beans(18%), cabbage(15%) and tion, as most of the aged farmers still retain the land,
peas(12%)werethemostpreferredfuturecropsinthe whichtheycannotfullyutilise. IntheKat,Middledrift
Katcatchment,withthefirstthreecropsbeinggrownfor and Tyume catchments, shortage of land was among
sale and the latter for consumption. A low percentage thefivemostimportantreasonsforinefficientlandutil-
of farmers (10–15% in Tyume and Middledrift and < isation by the smallholder farmers. This was the case
10%inKat)citedcerealfoodcrops,maize,wheatand despite the vast tracts of underutilised land and could
sorghumastheirfuturecrops. be because land is sometimes in the hands of people
whoareworkingintowns(Mondeetal.,2005). Fewer
farmersin Tyumecited land shortageas a majorprob-
3.5 Commercialfarms
lem mainly because a large proportion of the farmers
Themainfindingsoncommercialfarmsindicatedthat in the area have been absorbed into cooperatives such
more than half of the previously highly productive or- astheAgriParkinitiatedrecentlybyUniversityofFort
ange farms, acquired for crop production in the 1970s Hare and, as a result, do not need additional land out-
andmid-90s,hadbeencompletelyabandoned.Therea- sidetheseschemes.Suchinitiativescouldbeadoptedin
sonswerepoormanagementoffinances(43%),farmers MiddledriftandKat to provideland to willing farmers
whodonotliveontheirfarms(54%), whosometimes whodonotownland. Owingtothepresentlandtenure
employ‘farmmanagers’withnotertiaryeducationand legislation,wherebychiefsallocatelandunderthePer-
simplyactaswatchmen.Onapositivenote,57%ofthe mission to Occupy (PTO) land tenure system, transfer
farmers/farmmanagershadtertiaryqualification. of land from old people to the youth, women and the
able-bodiedis difficult. Land tenurelegislation should
give able-bodied men and women, who wish to farm,
4 Discussion
fullrightstotheland. However,suchlegislationthreat-
enstolegallyremovethepowersthattraditionalleaders
4.1 Demographiccharacteristicsofthefarmingcom-
still have over land and would, therefore, be opposed
munity
(Claasens, 2003; Mufundo Kalawe, Zanyokwe Irriga-
tion Scheme, Middledrift, Eastern Cape, SouthAfrica,
The large proportion of ageing smallholder farmers
between55–64yearsand>65yearscouldbethemain 2010pers. comm.).InsimilarworkdoneinWildCoast
of South Africa, Shackletonet al. (2013)reportedthat
reasonforlabourshortagesonthefarms. Thissuggests
farmersdidnotwanttopartwiththeirlandevenifitis
thattherewouldbefewerable-bodiedfarmersifnonew
notcultivatedduetoastrongsenseofentitlement.
farmers emerged in the near future as the older farm-
ers retire. The low proportion of able-bodied young Farmingcouldpresenta goodemploymentopportu-
farmerscouldbeattributedtomigrationtocities(Lahiff, nityfortheyouthinNkonkobe,where41%ofthepop-
2000) and mines. This trend is supported by national ulationisunemployed(STATSSA,2001).Thehighun-
householdsurveysconductedcountry-wide(STATSSA, employmentfigureis partlyattributedtoanabsenceof
2001; Aliber, 2009), which also reported a larger pro- a strong economic base, which can absorb only 3.5%
portionofoldfarmersinthecountry. Oldageremoves of the economically active group, and the dominance
theincentivetoengageincropproduction(Hebinck& of subsistence-related activities, with little surplus be-
Monde, 2007), thus, the higher proportion of farmers ing produced for profit (SDFP, 2004). Consequently,
over65 years of age in the Middledriftcould have led theyouthshouldbegivenanopportunitytoventureinto
to the high percentage of part-time farmers. Part-time farmingactivities.
farmersaremostlythosewhohaveothersourcesofin- Findingsfromthisstudysuggestthattheunemployed
come, such as remittances from relatives working in youth are not involved in farming because of limited
towns and recipients of governmentgrants in the form land in Middledrift and Kat or lack of interest, in all
ofoldagepensions,childsupportanddisabilitygrants. areas, possibly due to dependency on guardians’ gov-
The full effects of state grants on agricultural produc- ernment grants (Hebinck & Monde, 2007). Concerted
tionhavenotyetbeenestablished. (Hebinck&Monde,
A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53 49
effortsarethereforenecessarytoluretheyouthintoagri- islesslabour-intensiveandcouldserveotherpurposes,
culturebyprovidingthemwithlandrights. includingbulktransportation,ripping,ploughing,plant-
Theeffectsofshortageoflabourduetohighpropor- ingandweeding(Joubert,2010). FewerfarmersinKat
tion of the aged and non-involvementof the youths in catchmentindicatedthatfarmmachinerycontributedto
agriculture could have been worsened by low literacy low land utilisation probably because the government
ratesleadingtomorelandabandonment. Thelowliter- hadprovidedthesefarmerswithtractorsatsomepoint.
acyrateofthefarmersisaconcernasitcreatesdifficul- While land abandonment was strongly correlated
ties in promotingnewfarmingideasthroughextension with shortage of inputs in the Tyume and Kat, the
services. Thelowliteracyrateisreflected,firstly,inthe projectscarriedoutbytheUniversityofFortHare(Agri-
overallpopulationcensusfiguresforNkonkobeMunic- Park and ARDRI) have provided considerable support
ipality,wherebetween42%and67%inKatandabout throughtheprovisionofseedandfertilizers. Chimonyo
40% in Middledrift and Tyume are illiterate (STATS (2012) recommended the use of improved open pol-
SA, 2001). The low literacy rate could be because linated varieties (OPVs) as a viable option to reduce
the youth who have obtained senior certificates might seedcosts. Withthese(OPVs),farmerscanretainseed
haveleftfortownsinsearchofemployment,insteadof for future seasons for themselves and other farmers
staying on the farms and in the villages (SDFP, 2004; by harvesting, treating and packaging the seed. Un-
Hebinck & Monde, 2007). The lack of expertise that derlow-inputsmallholderfarmerconditions,locallyde-
emergedas oneof the reasons for low land utilisation, rived“landraces”areoftenbetteradaptedandperform
suggestthatthereisaneedforstrongcapacitybuilding betterthanhybrids(Mendesetal.,1985).
inextensionservicesasearlierrecommendedbyLaker Traditionally,kraalmanureiswidelyusedintheEast-
(2004b). ern Cape particularlyin home gardens to alleviate fer-
tiliser shortages (Mandiringanaet al., 2005). There is
also need to develop fertiliser use efficient strategies,
4.2 Landutilisationforarablecropproduction
suchastheuseofleguminousgreenmanurecovercrops
TheoveralllowlandutilisationinNkonkobewasalso and kraal manure to reduce the requirement for inor-
reported by Vedoordt et al. (2003), who indicated that ganicfertilisersforthefarmerswhocannotaffordthem
morethan70%ofwhatisperceivedaspotentiallypro- (Musunda,2010).
ductive fields was left uncultivated in Nkonkobe, and Strongcorrelationsfoundbetweenlandabandonment
that only about one-third of such land in the former with low rainfall and soil degradation in Tyume and
homelands was being cultivated at any one time while Middledriftconcurredwithreconnaissancestudiescar-
Shackleton et al. (2013) observed a similar trend in ried out in the area indicating that 85 to 95% of the
theWildCoastofSouthAfrica,wheretheyfoundland available land is not capable of supportingcultivation,
cover in the fields to have decreased from 12.5% in mainlybecauseoflowanderraticrainfall,shallowsoils
1961to2.7%in2007. and high erodibility (Van Averbeke & Marais, 1991;
Perhaps the major driving factor for land abandon- Laker, 2000). The high sodium content and high fine
ment in this study was shortages of farm machinery. sand fraction in these soils caused high crusting and
This couldbe attributedto a declinein animaldraught erodibilities (Laker, 2004a). The insignificant corre-
power at household and community levels due to de- lation between land abandonment and low rainfall in
creasedlivestockfarming(Fraseretal.,2003;Shackle- the Kat was due to the provision of irrigation services
ton et al.,2013). Correlationswere strongerin Tyume in some farms. To mitigate the low and erratic rain-
becauseoftheprevalenceoftheredsoilswithveryhard fall farmers could consider drought tolerant crops like
dryconsistencymakingitdifficulttotillusingsmallim- sorghum, sunflowerand cowpeain all the three small-
plements. To increase draughtpower there is need for holderareas.
governmentsupportin livestockproduction. Hiringof However,studies carriedout overmanyyears in the
tractorsfortillagewouldbea problem,especiallydur- Municipality reported that the average yield of maize
ing peak farming periods as farmers share and could washigheratGuquka,whichhadmorefavourablecon-
misscriticalplantingperiods(Mondeetal.,2005). The ditionsthanKoloni,buttheproportionofthefieldarea
Animal Traction Centre at the University of Fort Hare planted to crops turned out to be equally low in both
is currently conducting research on the use of animal cases(Vedoordtetal.,2003),suggestingthatbiophysi-
draught power for production of vegetables, and pre- calconditionswerenotthemainfactorforthelowland
liminaryresultsintermsofcostreductionandyieldin- utilisation. Apart from shortages of farm machinery,
creaseareencouraging(Joubert,2010).Thistechnology
50 A.Manyevereetal./J.Agr.RuralDevelop.Trop.Subtrop.115-1(2014)41–53
low rainfall, soil degradation and shortages of inputs intofarmingshouldbeputinplacewithoutcreatingland
whichgenerallyshowedastrongrelationshipwithland conflicts.
abandonment other factors influencing low production
werelackofsecurity(croptheft),labourandlandshort-
4.3 Typesofcropsgrown
ages. Thelatterisanomalousinviewofthevasttracts
ofunusedabandonedland. Maize was the most common crop grown by small-
Lackofsecurityfromthievesandlivestockcouldbe holder communal farmers in Tyume River catchment,
becausetheKatandTyumecatchmentsaredenselypop- Middledrift and Kat River catchment. However, the
ulated, encompassing numerous relatively large rural role of traditional cereal food crops is slowly dimin-
villagesandthetownsofAliceandFortBeaufort.Crim- ishing, as indicated by the high proportion of farmers
inalsfromthesetownsandvillagescouldberesponsible whonolongergrowmaize, wheatand/orsorghum. At
forthefts,andthisissupportedbyinformationfromAl- one time some parts of the Eastern Cape near Peddie
iceandFortBeaufortpolicestations(SouthAfricanPo- (which borders Nkonkobe municipality to the South)
liceService,2009pers. comm.). Theftmayceasetobe were big suppliers of wheat in the Province but now
amajorproblemiffarmingbecomesanattractivebusi- productionhas almost ceased (M.C. Laker, 2012 pers.
nesstotheyouth. comm.). The decline in production of cereals such as
Labour shortages were also major reasons for crop wheatandsorghumcouldbebecausetheyarelabourin-
productioninTyumeandKat,probablybecauseofmi- tensivewherelabourisachallengeandanageingpop-
gration to the nearby towns of Alice and Fort Beau- ulation. The decline could also have been caused by
fort, and also to commercial farms in the case of the a shift byfarmersfromfields to smaller homegardens
Kat River catchment. This trend was less pronounced as a result ofsecurityconcerns. Thecerealcropshave
in the Middledrift area, where there is little commer- beenabandonedinfavourofvegetablecrops,withpota-
cial activity. As discussed earlier, migration, lack of toes, cabbage and spinach dominating in these areas.
farminginterest,governmentgrantsandoldageconsti- Beans and butternut are also common in Middledrift
tutesomeofthemajorreasonsforshortageoflabourin and the Kat catchment. These findings are supported
communalareas. Familylabourisalsomostlyprovided by information from Baiphethi & Jacobs (2009), who
bywomen,whousuallyhaveotherhouseholdchoresto reported that 92% of the consumers in former home-
take care of (Monde et al., 2005). In addition, Aliber landsbuytheirbasicstaplefoodneedsfromfoodchain
(2009)arguedthatinover60%ofthehouseholdsinfor- stores,whichhasincreasedfoodexpendituretobetween
merhomelands,familylabourisprovidedbyonemem- 60–80%ofthetotalhouseholdincomeforlow-income
ber of the family. During peak periods, farmers form earners. Shackleton et al. (2013) also reported that
labourco-operatives,whichhelptoalleviatethelabour maize production decreased because of the increased
shortages(Hebinck&Monde,2007). Hiringoflabour preference to rice which is normally purchased from
is costlyandmostresource-poorfarmerscannotafford foodchains. Theabandonmentofcerealfoodcropsisa
it (VanAverbeke& Mohamed,2006). Research needs threattofoodsecurityin theMunicipalityandways to
tofocusonidentificationoflabour-savingtechnologies, revitalizetheseexcludedfoodcropsshouldbesought.
suchas animaldraughtpower(Joubert,2010;Fanadzo The farmers were more willing to continue grow-
etal.,2010). ing cabbage, potatoes and beans in the future for sale
ThereareseveralareasintheNkonkobeMunicipality (commercialpurposes). Thoughthegeneralimpression
withmoderatetohighcroppingpotentialthathavenever ofhomelandagriculturethatemergesfromliteratureis
beencultivatedorhaveneverbeenusedtotheirfullpo- thatfarmingis practisedona small scale andthat pro-
tential. Thisis despitethefactthatmanyotherpeople, duce is mainly for home consumption (Lahiff, 2000),
especially the youth, are landless, while some active findings from this study reflect encouragingsigns of a
farmers cultivate on less suitable lands (Mbuti, 2000). shifttowardscommercialagriculture. Thiswasevident
AsignificantnumberoffarmersinMiddledriftandKat amongpeoplearoundUpperNceravillageunderChief
catchmentcitedlandshortagesandexpressedconcerns Mabandla, who have been producing mainly cabbage
thattheywereleasinglandfromtheolderfarmers,par- and spinach on a commercial basis. Farmers have ac-
tiallyinexchangefortheirproduce. Thisgroupofpeo- knowledgedthattheywanttogrowcropsmainlyforsale
pleneedhelptosecurelandrights. Alandreformpol- and therefore efforts are needed to help these farmers
icythatisdesignedtotransferproductivelandtopoten- achievethisgoal.
tial youngfarmers with the will and energyto venture Emergingcropssuchascowpeas,beansareimportant
as for daily consumption and are a very good source