Table Of ContentEthics and Integrity in Educational Contexts 5
Sarah Elaine Eaton
Jamie J. Carmichael
Helen Pethrick Editors
Fake Degrees
and Fraudulent
Credentials in
Higher Education
Ethics and Integrity in Educational Contexts
Volume 5
Series Editor
Sarah Elaine Eaton , Werklund School of Education, University of Calgary,
Calgary, AB, Canada
Editorial Board Members
Tomáš Foltýnek , Department of Informatics, Mendel University, Brno,
Czech Republic
Irene Glendinning , Coventry University, Coventry, UK
Zeenath Reza Khan , University of Wollongong, Dubai, United Arab Emirates
Rebecca Moore Howard, Syracuse University, Syracuse, NY, USA
Mark Israel, Australasian Human Research Ethics Consultancy Services,
Perth, Australia
Ceceilia Parnther, St. John’s University, Jamaica, NY, USA
Brenda Stoesz, The Center for Advancement of Teaching and Learning,
University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, Canada
The aim of this series is to provide an authoritative series of books on topics relating
to ethics and integrity in educational contexts. Its scope includes ethics and integrity,
defined in broad and inclusive terms, in educational contexts. It focuses on higher
education, but also welcomes contributions that address ethics and integrity in
primary and secondary education, non-formal educational contexts, professional
education, etc. We welcome books that address traditional academic integrity topics
such as plagiarism, exam cheating, and collusion.
In addition, we are particularly interested in topics that extend beyond questions
of student conduct, such as
• Quality assurance in education;
• Research ethics and integrity;
• Admissions fraud;
• Fake and fraudulent credentials;
• Publication ethics;
• Educational technology ethics (e.g., surveillance tech, machine learning, and
artificial intelligence, as they are used in education);
• Biomedical ethics in educational contexts;
• Ethics in varsity and school sports.
This series extends beyond traditional and narrow concepts of academic integrity
to broader interpretations of applied ethics in education, including corruption and
ethical questions relating to instruction, assessment, and educational leadership. It
also seeks to promote social justice, diversity, equity, and inclusion.
The series provides a forum to address emerging, urgent, and even provocative
topics related to ethics and integrity at all levels of education, from a variety of
disciplinary and geographical perspectives.
Sarah Elaine Eaton • Jamie J. Carmichael
Helen Pethrick
Editors
Fake Degrees and Fraudulent
Credentials in Higher
Education
Editors
Sarah Elaine Eaton Jamie J. Carmichael
Werklund School of Education Carleton University
University of Calgary Ottawa, ON, Canada
Calgary, AB, Canada
Helen Pethrick
University of Calgary
Calgary, AB, Canada
ISSN 2731-779X ISSN 2731-7803 (electronic)
Ethics and Integrity in Educational Contexts
ISBN 978-3-031-21795-1 ISBN 978-3-031-21796-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-21796-8
© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
Switzerland AG 2023
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Preface
We did not start this work with a book in mind, but rather we began with curiosity
about fake and fraudulent academic credentials in higher education. We noted a lack
of scholarly research on this topic and wanted to know more. We (Jamie and Sarah)
developed a brief survey that they administered in Canada and realized that among
those who work in higher education, there were alarming gaps in knowledge. (You
can read more about our survey in chapter two of this book.)
After we (Jamie and Sarah) presented a webinar on the topic of fake degrees and
fraudulent credentials at the University of Calgary in 2020, we were humbled and
realized that we ourselves had a lot to learn. We began gathering all the literature we
could find on the topic and one name kept popping up, Allen Ezell. It quickly
became obvious that he was the leading expert in the world on this topic and we
knew we wanted to work with him. We also began to understand that fake and
fraudulent credentials included other topics, such as corruption and fraud in the
entire admissions process, including the administration of standardized admissions
tests and English language proficiency tests. We were also interested in the use of
technology and how it can be used to uphold integrity in the process of admissions
and academic record-keeping. We engaged in a lengthy literature review search and
found a limited number of articles and books on these topics, and we realized that
there was a need for an edited volume that brought together authors with different
but complementary expertise on topics related to fake and fraudulent degrees.
We developed a book proposal and put out a call for chapters. We also reached
out to Allen Ezell and asked if he would contribute a chapter, and we were delighted
when he agreed. As proposals for other chapters came in, the book began to
take shape.
Our third editor (Helen Pethrick) joined the project in the later stages of its devel-
opment, contributing editorial and academic writing expertise.
This book was developed and mostly written during the most difficult 2 years of
the COVID-19 pandemic, from early 2020 through to 2022. Everyone who contrib-
uted to the book was impacted by the pandemic either directly or indirectly. Although
we originally planned to have this book published a little earlier, we opted instead
v
vi Preface
to delay the publication of the work to provide contributors with the time they
needed to work on their chapters.
This book makes a unique contribution to the field of scholarship on academic
integrity and ethics, bringing insights from authors from working in Canada, the
USA, the UK, and Türkiye, several of whom have additional international experi-
ences that further broaden their perspectives. We are grateful to have learned from
and with each of the contributors to this one-of-a-kind book.
Calgary, AB, Canada Sarah Elaine Eaton
Ottawa, ON, Canada Jamie J. Carmichael
Calgary, AB, Canada Helen Pethrick
Acknowledgments
Sarah and Helen are grateful to the University of Calgary’s Taylor Institute for
Teaching and Learning, and specifically to the Educational Leader in Residence
(ELR) program that made this work possible. Thanks are due to Dr. Dru Marshall
for supporting the ELR program from a provost level, and we are especially grateful
to Dr. Leslie Reid, Vice Provost, Teaching and Learning; Dr. Natasha Kenny, Senior
Director of the Taylor Institute of Teaching and Learning; and Dr. Susan Barker,
Vice Provost of Student Experience, who all supported the Educational Leader in
Residence, Academic Integrity portfolio.
Jamie would like to thank Carleton University, where she has worked for 20
years, with 5 of those years as the Associate Registrar of Scheduling and Systems.
For the majority of this time, I (Jamie) have worked under the direction of Suzanne
Blanchard, Vice-President of Students and Enrolment, who has provided tremen-
dous guidance and a friendly ear over the years. Special thanks to Dr. Jerry
Tomberlin, Provost & Vice- President Academic, Dr. Catherine Khordoc, Deputy
Provost, as well as the Associate Deans (Dr. Howard Nemiroff, Dr. Jerome Talim,
Dr. Robert Langlois, Dr. Peter Thompson, Dr. Anne Bowker, Dr. David Mendeloff,
Dr. Paul Wilson, Dr. Julia Wallace, Dr. Sue Bertram, Dr. Kim Hellemans), who have
provided academic leadership.
I (Jamie) would like to thank my peers for their time in answering my questions
throughout the research process. In particular, the Admissions Office (Janice
O’Farrell, Jen Sugar, Sarah Ramisch, and Anshul Singh), Registrar’s Office (Dotty
Nwakanma and James Moretton), and the Information Security Office (Steve Fraser,
Eddie Vilarta, Todd Switzer, and Mahmoud Raslan).
I (Jamie) am also thankful for my academic department, Technology Innovation
and Management, which is a joint-program between Systems and Computer
Engineering, and the Sprott School of Business under the direction of Dr. Steven
Muegge. I planted my academic roots here as a graduate student under the supervi-
sion of Dr. Michael Weiss, Associate Professor in Systems and Computer
Engineering, who has introduced me to the world of text mining.
From Jamie, a special thank you to Dr. Lorraine Dyke, Vice-President of Finance
and Administration; Dr. Anthony White, Adjunct Research Professor; Dr. Luke
vii
viii Acknowledgments
Russell, PhD Electrical and Computer Engineering; and Dr. Sarah Elaine Eaton,
Associate Professor and Chair, University of Calgary, for their mentorship, support,
and encouragement. You have inspired me, been a force of positivity, and for that,
I am so very grateful.
Personal notes of thanks are also in order. I (Jamie) would like to thank my hus-
band, Edward Carmichael, and my children (Charlotte and Matthew) who are truly
my best chapters. I (Sarah) would like to thank my husband, Todd Maki, along with
all of my family who provide ongoing encouragement and support.
We all owe a debt of gratitude to Allen Ezell, FBI Special Agent (ret.). In addi-
tion to writing his outstanding chapter, Allen became a private tutor to us, providing
insights into the global industry of degree fraud that has continued to proliferate for
decades. We had many conversations with Allen throughout the preparation of this
book, each one more enlightening and instructive than the previous one.
Calgary, Canada Sarah Elaine Eaton
Ottawa, Canada Jamie J. Carmichael
Calgary, Canada Helen Pethrick
Contents
1 Fake Degrees and Credential Fraud, Contract Cheating,
and Paper Mills: Overview and Historical Perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Sarah Elaine Eaton and Jamie J. Carmichael
2 Admissions Fraud in Canadian Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Jamie J. Carmichael and Sarah Elaine Eaton
3 Yesterday, Today, and Tomorrow: A Tour of Axact,
the “World’s Largest Diploma Mill” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Allen Ezell
4 Bridging to Tomorrow: A Historical and Technological Review
of Credential Exchange in Higher Education Within Canada . . . . . . 95
Joanne Duklas
5 Fair Play, Fraud, or Fixed? Athletic Credentials
in U.S. Higher Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Kirsten Hextrum
6 Corruption in Admissions, Recruitment, Qualifications
and Credentials: From Research into Quality Assurance . . . . . . . . . . 133
Stella-Maris Orim and Irene Glendinning
7 Avoiding Favouritism in the Recruitment Practice
of Turkish Higher Education Institutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Özgür Çelik and Salim Razı
8 None of the Above: Integrity Concerns of Standardized
English Proficiency Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Soroush Sabbaghan and Ismaeil Fazel
9 Examining the Problem of Fraudulent English Test Scores:
What Can Canadian Higher Education Institutions Learn? . . . . . . . 187
Angela Clark
ix
