external actors and the evolution of latvian nationality policy 1991-1999

317 Pages·2012·5.41 MB·English

EXTERNAL ACTORS AND THE EVOLUTION OF LATVIAN
NATIONALITY POLICY
1991-1999
Helen May Morris, Saint Antony's College
Thesis submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
D.Phil, in International Relations in the Division of Social Sciences
at the University of Oxford
Trinity Term, 2001
95,157 Words
ABSTRACT
EXTERNAL ACTORS AND THE EVOLUTION OF LATVIAN
NATIONALITY POLICY
1991-1999
Helen May Morris, Saint Antony's College
University of Oxford
D.Phil, in International Relations
Division of Social Sciences
Trinity Term 2001
Since regaining independence in 1991, Latvian nationality policy has developed from
an exclusive, almost restitutionist, policy seeking to identity the Latvian state with the
Latvian nation into a more inclusive civic definition of Latvian citizenship. This
thesis aims to explain why this has occurred by examining the role of domestic,
regional, and systemic level actors. Analysis of the external actors has been divided
into states and institutions grouped into circles of Latvian interest. The inner circle
includes Latvian domestic political actors, the next Latvia's principal bilateral
relationship with the Russian Federation, followed by the Baltic States, then by Baltic
Sea regional cooperation. The EU and OSCE, NATO, UN, and United States lie in
the outer circles. Questions are asked about what the actors wanted in terms of
Latvian nationality policy, which tools were at their disposal, and the results, if any,
they were able to achieve.
Although not a theoretical study, the thesis touches on theoretical and methods issues,
querying the extent to which external rather than internal factors determine policy
outcomes in small states and arguing that Latvia's desire to join the EU was critical in
the reform of Latvian citizenship legislation. It is the author's view that the evolution
in nationality policy cannot be accounted for through a single level analysis.
Domestic, regional, and international bilateral contexts are all necessary aspects of an
explanation, although they might not fully account for the liberalisation of the
citizenship legislation. After rejection from EU accession talks and a marked
deterioration in relations with the Russian Federation, the Latvian Saeima and
electorate amended the Citizenship Law to conform to OSCE HCNM
recommendations. This suggests that the membership conditions of the EU are a
powerful force in persuading applicant countries to alter their legislation to comply
with a civic concept of citizenship.
Acknowledgements
I would like to thank:
My supervisor Neil MacFarlane for the unstinting support and encouragement he has
given to me during my studies at Oxford and previously at Queen's University at
Kingston, Ontario.
For friendship and hospitality during my field work and writing up; Emma Campos-
Redman and Nick Redman, Laura Kauppila, Alexandra Lai, Michael Miller, George
Morris and Ann Le Good, Sarah Murrell, Su Yun Myong, and, Franklin and Enid
Odo.
The late Graham Smith, Sidney Sussex College for sending me on my first trip to
Latvia as his Research Associate.
Special thanks goes to Margaret Jane Hoverd Chanaa for exceptional friendship,
support, and encouragement.
Very special thanks, for unending support, encouragement, and finance, to Bob and
Barbara Morris.
Helen Morris, Oxford, 2001.
Table of Contents
ABSTRACT i
MAPS
Latvia ii
The Baltic Sea Area iii
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Central question 1
Relevance of topic and theoretical context 1
Theoretical issues 5
Research approaches and methods 7
Argument and Conclusion 20
CHAPTER TWO
HISTORICAL BACKGROUND AND THE FORMATION OF LATVIAN
NATIONALITY POLICY
Introduction 21
The 18th until the late 19th century 21
World War I 25
1918-1920 27
Nazi occupation 35
Marxism-Leninism and Soviet nationality policy 36
Return of Soviet rule 39
Gorbachev era 46
Independence regained 1991 55
Troop withdrawal 59
Creation of a Citizenship Law 61
Language 75
Education 80
Border treaty 1997 81
Minorities vs. non-citizens 82
Conclusions 87
CHAPTER THREE
DOMESTIC POLITICS AND NATIONALITY POLICY IN LATVIA
Introduction 89
Presidential role 93
Political parties and government 102
Table 1 1990 election to the Latvian Supreme Council 103
Table 2 1993 Saeima Election 104
Table 3 1995 Saeima Election 105
Table 4 1998 Saeima Election 106
Table 5 Governments of Latvia 107
Bureaucracy 132
NGOs, Non-citizens and non-Latvian social movements 136
Conclusions 149
CHAPTER FOUR
THE ROLE OF STATE ACTORS AND NATIONALITY POLICY IN LATVIA
Introduction 152
Section I: Estonia and Lithuania and nationality policy in Latvia 154
Section II: The Russian Federation and nationality policy in Latvia 166
Section III: The Nordic Countries and nationality policy in Latvia 187
Section IV: The United States and nationality policy in Latvia 195
Chapter Conclusion 212
CHAPTER FIVE
INSTITUTIONS AND NATIONALITY POLICY IN LATVIA
Introduction 213
Section I: Baltic regional organisations 213
Section II: Council of Europe 218
Section III: The OSCE 225
Section IV: EU 240
Section V: NATO 252
Section VI: United Nations 254
Chapter Conclusions 260
CONCLUSION 264
BIBLIOGRAPHY 271
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Chapter One
Introduction
Central question
Since regaining independence in 1991, Latvian nationality policy has developed from
an exclusive, almost restitutionist, policy seeking to identify the Latvian state with the
Latvian nation into a more inclusive civic definition of Latvian citizenship. The
objective of this thesis is to explain why this has occurred. The introduction includes
a discussion on the relevance of the topic as well as the various approaches taken to
tackling the central research question and a consideration of a number of methods
issues.
Relevance of topic and theoretical context
The issue of nationality politics has particular salience for a number of areas including
Latvian government policy, relations with the post-Soviet states, European security,
and international relations theory.
First, Latvia is an ethnically heterogeneous society. The Latvian government
wishes to create a stable independent state, which will be accepted into the structures
of the international community. If building a Latvian state is equated with building a
Latvian nation, then the debates and decision-making processes surrounding the
relationships between the minority non-Latvian and the majority Latvian
communities, and between citizens and non-citizens, could prove to be unsettling to
the process of change in post-1991 Latvian politics and society. The Latvian case is
unique because Latvia hosts the largest percentage of ethnic Russians living within its
borders of any of the Baltic countries and, with the exception of Kazakhstan, of any
former republic of the USSR.1 When it gained its independence in 1991, only 52% of
Latvia's population comprised ethnic Latvians, compared with a titular population of
1 According to the Soviet Union Census, 1989, Kazakhstan had a population of Kazakhs 40% and Russians 37%.
62% in Estonia and 80% in Lithuania. The question of citizenship for the
fy
Russophone minority, which constitutes 37.2% of the population of Latvia but only
17.8% of the citizenry,3 is the key issue in Latvia's struggle towards democratisation,
and the crucial issue in that country's accession to international organisations.4
European Commissioner Hans van den Broek, with responsibility for co-operation
between the EU and the East European countries and with Russia, stated that the
question of human rights or the rights of minorities is not contingent on anything, and
any country which aspires to join European organisations or is already a member of
certain of them has an obligation to observe strictly this paramount principle.5 EU
Ambassador to Riga Gunther Weiss stated that it was impossible to consider Latvian
accession to the European Union without considering Latvian-Russian relations and
the status of Latvian non-citizens.6 Confirming this view was a statement by the
OSCE High Commissioner for National Minorities, Max van der Stoel, that an
important condition for integration into European structures is the integration of other
nationalities into Latvian society.7
The treatment of the long-term non-citizens in Latvia may have affected the
growth of democracy in Latvia, as a third of the population are unable to participate in
the electoral process. The status of non-citizens has also become a key issue in
attempts to join international organisations, as the situation can be readily used to
challenge Latvia's legitimacy as a democratic state. For example, in its desire to join
NATO, Latvia must settle its relations with Russia. Under political and economic
2 Russophones include ethnic Russian, Ukrainian, and Belarusian Russian speaking migrants.
3 Latvian Human Development Report 1997 (Riga, Latvia: UNDP, 1997), p. 49. The 1998 and 1999 reports did not
give extensive coverage to nationality issues. In seven out of eight of Latvia's largest cities Latvians are in a
minority: Riga 36.5%, Daugavpils 13%, Jelgava 49.7%, Jurmala 44.2%, Rezekne 37.3%, Ventspils 43%, Liepaja
38.8%; The Latvian Elections: Democracy and Human Rights, A report by the British Helsinki Human Rights Group,
1993, p. 16. In Latvia, minorities, including non-citizens, account for nearly 44% of the population, including 30%
Russians, 4% Belarusians and 3% Ukrainians. Of the Latvian Russophone residents, 314,731 are Latvian citizens
and 599,635 (66%) do not hold Latvian citizenship. Citizenship and Immigration Department data in Latvia
Human Development Report 1997 (Riga, Latvia, UNDP, 1997), p. 49. European Union figures estimate the
Latvian population at 59% and Russophones at 32.6%.
4 The Latvian Elections: Democracy and Human Rights (A report by the British Helsinki Human Rights Group, 1993), p.
30.
5'Ryzhkov Raised Latvia Events with European Colleagues', Moscow Nezavisimaya Gazeta in Russian, 12 March
1998, p. 6. FBIS-SOV-98-075, Daily Report, Central Eurasia, 16 March 1998.
6 Baltic States, 'Latvia: Ulmanis: Riga Ready for Talks on EU Membership', Moscow INTERFAX in English, 1735
GMT 20 March 1996. FBIS-SOV-96-057, Daily Report, 20 March 1996.
7 Baltic States, Latvia: 'OSCE Official Sees EU Membership in 'Near Future1, Riga Radio Riga Network in
Latvian, 1500 GMT, 8 October 1996. FBIS-SOV-96-197, Daily Report, 8 October 1996.