Table Of ContentHigh-Pressure Shock Compression of
Condensed Matter
Editors-in-Chiej
Lee Davison
Yasuyuki Horie
Editor-in-Chiej Emeritus
Robert A. Graham
Advisory Board
Roger Cheret, France
Vladimir E. Fortov, Russia
Jing Fuqian, China
Y.M. Gupta, USA
James N. Johnson, USA
Akira B. Sawaoka, Japan
e
c
n
e
f
e
D
(
ES ).
Ra
Dad
of an
courtesy Alberta, C
oto at,
hH
here. Pdicine
pe
sM
mi
ed,
T hfiel
Nf
u
TS
on nt
O-tme
Oh
Ss
f a abli
n oEst
natioarch
oe
etes
DR
Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters
Editors
Explosive Effects and
Applications
With 160 Illustrations
~ Springer
Jonas A. Zukas William P. Walters
Computatîonal Mechanics Associates Army Research Laboralory
P.O. Box 11314 Aberdeen Proving Ground
Baltîmore, MO 21239 Aherdeen, MO 21005
USA USA
Editors-in-Chief Yasuyuki Horic
Lee Oavison 1..os Alamos National Laboratory
39 Canoncito Vista Road Las Alamos, NM 87545
Tijeras, NM 87059 USA
USA [email protected]
[email protected]
Library of Congress Cataioging-in-PubJication Data
Explosive effects and applications I edited by Jonas A. Z\lkas,
William P. Walters.
p. cm. - .( Higb prcssure sbock compression of coodensed
ITI<ltter)
Includes bibliographical referem:es.
ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 ISBN 978-1-4612-0589-0 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-1-4612-0589-0
1. Blast cffca.. 2. Sbock waves. 3. Condenscd maltcr.
1. Zukas, Jonas A. II. Walters, W.P. (William P.), 1943-
111. Scries.
TA 6S4.7.E9S 1997
662'.2-Ix:'21 97-5779
ISBN 978-0-387-95558-2 Printed on acid-fI'ec paper.
CI 1998 Springer Science+8usiness M~dia N~w York
Originally publishcd by Springer-Vertag New York in 1998
AII rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in wbole or in pan witboullbe wriuen
pennission of Ihe publisber (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC). except for brief excerpts in con
nection wilb reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in conneclion wilb any fono ofinfonnalion storage arni
retrieval, electronic adaplation, compuler software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now
known or hereafter developed is forbidden.
The use in this publication oftrade names, lrademarks, service marks, and similar lenns, even ifthey
are IlOt identified as such, is nOI 10 be taken as an expression of opinion as 10 whdher or IlOllhey are
subjecllo proprietary rights.
9876543
springcronline..com
Preface
Our principal motivation in putting together this book, a project started in
earnest in early 1996, was to have a book on energetic materials that was
accessible to a newcomer to the field. To this end, we asked all contributors
to emphasize basic principles and to provide a broad overview of their fields
of specialization. In addition, we requested that they summarize the state of
the art in their areas as well. By and large, we believe this goal has been met.
At the time this book was started, many of the classic books dealing with
energetic materials were either "out of stock" or "out of print." These are
publishing industry jargon for "If you don't already have it, you're not
going to get it from us." Left were but a handful of books for specialists in
the field. Fortunately, many of the authors and contributors to these extinct
classics were active as teachers and lecturers in university classrooms and
short courses. Indeed, many of the chapters in this book had their origins as
course notes for short courses dealing with detonation physics and explosive
technology. All of this was good material, aimed at an audience assumed to
have no prior experience with energetic materials, but buried in short course
notes that are not readily accessible. They accepted enthusiastically the
invitation to prepare chapters covering their work and generously share a
lifetime of expertise with the reader.
The book is divided into ten chapters. The first two provide a broad
overview of the nature of explosives and their many applications. Most
people consider explosives in a military context, and so will be surprised
to find that the civilian use of explosives, particularly in rock blasting and
demolitions, has always outweighed their use by the military. This has held
true even in times of war. Since explosives release their energy over an
extremely short period of time, the presence of shock waves is inevitable in
all applications. This topic, as well as a description of explosive behavior
under shock loading conditions, is considered in Chapter 3. Fundamentals
of detonation theory are covered in Chapter 4 and the study of explosive
initiation is continued in some detail in Chapter 6. Chapter 5 deals with
the chemistry of explosives. In order to be useful in industry, the energy
generated by an explosive, or explosive output, must be harnessed in a
v
vi Preface
meaningful fashion. Chapter 7 covers one such application, the Gurney
model, in great detail. Hazards and safety considerations are dealt with in
Chapters 8 and 9. Chapter 10 considers one of many possible applications,
the safe demolition of structures through the use of explosives. The astute
reader will note some duplication between chapters. This is intentional. The
editors felt that repetition of the basics from different points of view would
be beneficial to understanding the subject matter and well worth the slight
increase in the length of the book.
The material in this book has been prepared to be readily accessible to
anyone with a first degree in science or engineering. Familiarity with the
fundamental principles of thermodynamics and organic chemistry that are
typically presented at an undergraduate level is particularly helpful.
All contributors to the book are internationally recognized experts in
their respective fields. We thank them for the time they have taken to pre
pare and preserve this material. We are also grateful to the many reviewers
whose advice contributed to the quality of the book.
This book is primarily meant for self-study by scientists and engineers
who need an introduction to energetic materials and references for further
study. With the addition of some supplemental material and class exercises,
it can also serve as an advanced undergraduate or graduate text on explo
sive effects.
The Aberdeen Diner, where Bill Walters and I have spent more time than
either of us care to remember, has as its motto:
"If you like the food, tell your friends. If not, tell us."
We encourage readers of the book to share their suggestions for improve
ment. Comments such as "great book" or "this is the worst piece of trash
I've ever read" are useful in that they convey minimal information on how
the book has been received. We would urge you though, having been moved
enough by the book to write in the first place, to be just a tad more specific.
Praise is delightful, but a detailed description of the faults of the book is
invaluable. If there are enough of them, there may even be a "new and
improved" version of this book. After all, why should the manufacturers of
detergents have all the fun!
Baltimore, Maryland Jonas A. Zukas
Aberdeen, Maryland William P. Walters
Contents
Preface ................................................................. v
List of Editors and Contributors ....................................... xv
CHAPTER I
Introduction to Explosives 1
William C. Davis
1.1. History ............................................................ 1
1.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 5
1.3. Blasting ............................................................ 6
1.4. Military Uses....................................................... 9
1.4.1. Blast Waves ................................................. 10
1.4.2. Fragm.ents .................................................... 13
1.5. Jet Penetrators ..................................................... 15
1.6. Reactive Armor .................................................... 16
1.7. Explosive Welding.................................................. 17
1.8. Wave Shaping and Lenses .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1.9. Conclusions ........................................................ 20
1.10. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ...................................... 20
References ......................................................... 21
CHAPTER 2
Explosives Development and Fundamentals of
Explosives Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Peter R. Lee
2.1. Introduction ........................................................ 23
2.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 24
2.2.1. Units of Measurement ........................................ 24
2.2.2. Definitions of Physical, Chemical, and Materials
Properties of Explosives ...................................... 26
2.3. The Nature of Explosions ........................................... 26
2.3.1. Physical Explosions .......................................... 26
2.3.2. Chemical Explosions ......................................... 27
2.3.3. Nuclear Explosions .......................................... 27
2.4. What Are Explosives? ......... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
vii
Vl11 Contents
2.5. A Short History of Explosives ....................................... 29
2.5.1. Greek Fire........ ................................ ........... 29
2.5.2. Gunpowder, or Black Powder ................................ 29
2.5.3. Brief Chronology of the Discovery and Development of the
Commoner High Explosives and Propellants .................. 30
2.5.3.1. Nitroglycerine ...................................... 30
2.5.3.2. Nitrocellulose ....................................... 33
2.5.3.3. Gun Propellant Developments ....................... 36
2.5.3.4. Picric Acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol) .................... 37
2.5.3.5. Tetryl (2,4,6-Trinitrophenylmethylnitramine) ......... 38
2.5.3.6. TNT (Trinitrotoluene) ............................... 39
2.5.3.7. RDX (Cyclotrimethylenetrinitramine) ................ 40
2.5.3.8. HMX (Cyclotetramethylenetetranitramine) ........... 41
2.5.3.9. PETN (Pentaerithrytoltetranitrate) ................... 41
2.5.3.10. HNS (Hexanitrostilbene) ............................ 41
2.5.3.11. TATB (Triaminotrinitrobenzene) .................... 42
2.5.3.12. HBN (Hexanitrobenzene) ............................ 42
2.5.3.13. Commercial Explosives .............................. 42
2.5.3.14. Future Explosives Development ..................... 43
CHAPTER 3
Shock Waves; Rarefaction Waves; Equations of State 47
William C. Davis
3.1. Introduction ........................................................ 47
3.2. Notation and Units ................................................. 48
3.3. List of Symbols ..................................................... 49
3.4. Shock Waves ....................................................... 50
3.5. Rarefaction Waves ................................................. 55
3.6. Reference Frames .................................................. 61
3.7. Sharp Shocks and Diffuse Rarefactions .............................. 63
3.8. Transmission and Reflection of Waves at Interfaces .................. 64
3.9. The Shock Tube.................................................... 72
3.10. Detonation ......................................................... 74
3.11. Phase Changes ..................................................... 77
3.12. Hydrodynamics and Thermodynamics ............................... 80
3.13. Equations of State .................................................. 82
3.13.1. Ideal Gas and Polytropic Gas .............................. 83
3.13.2. Abel ...................................................... 85
3.13.3. Inverse Power Potential .................................... 86
3.13.4. Expansion of Equations of State in Powers of v ............. 86
3.13.5. Tait ....................................................... 87
3.13.6. BKW ..................................................... 88
3.13.7. Intermolecular Potentials ................................... 88
3.13.8. JWL ...................................................... 89
3.13.9. Linear U-u ................................................ 91
3.13.10. Walsh Mirror Image ....................................... 93
3.13.11. Hayes ..................................................... 94
3.13.12. Davis ..................................................... 95
3.13.13. Williamsburg .............................................. 95
Contents IX
3.13.14. Summary .................................................. 96
3.14. Equations of State for Mixtures ..................................... 96
3.15. The Adiabatic Gamma, the Griineisen Gamma, and
the Fundamental Derivative ......................................... 100
Hugoniot Curve Data [Fritz (1996b)] ................................ 105
3.16. Problems (Hints and Solutions) ..................................... 105
References ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
CHAPTER 4
Introduction to Detonation Physics 115
Paul W. Cooper
4.1. Nomenclature ...................................................... 115
4.2. The Simple Model .................................................. 116
4.3. The Jump Equations................................................ 119
4.4. The Detonation Product P-V Isentrope ............................. 120
4.5. Detonation Velocity and Density .................................... 121
4.6. The C-J State ...................................................... 127
4.7. The Detonation Product P-u Hugoniot .............................. 128
4.8. Detonation Velocity and Charge Diameter........................... 130
4.9. Conclusion ......................................................... 133
Bibliography ....................................................... 134
References ......................................................... 134
CHAPTER 5
The Chemistry of Explosives 137
Jimmie C. Oxley
5.1. Background ........................................................ 137
5.2. Conventional Explosives ............................................ 140
5.3. Nitrate Esters ...................................................... 141
5.3.1. Nitrate Ester Formulations ................................... 144
5.4. Nitroarenes ........................................................ 146
5.4.1. Thermally Stable Nitroarenes ................................. 151
5.5. Nitroalkanes ....................................................... 154
5.6. Nitramines ......................................................... 156
5.6.1. Nitramine Composites........................................ 159
5.7. Heterocyclic Explosives ............................................. 160
5.8. Energetic Salts ..................................................... 162
5.9. Composite Explosives............................................... 165
5.10. Liquid Oxidizers and Explosives ..................................... 166
5.11. Unconventional Explosives.......................................... 168
References ......................................................... 171
CHAPTER 6
Theories and Techniques of Initiation 173
Peter R. Lee
6.1. Introduction ........................................................ 173
6.2. Nomenclature ...................................................... 173
