Table Of ContentThis is a special edition of an established title widely used by colleges and
GLOBAL GLOBAL
universities throughout the world. Pearson published this exclusive edition
for the benefit of students outside the United States and Canada. If you
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purchased this book within the United States or Canada, you should be aware DL
that it has been imported without the approval of the Publisher or Author. ITIOOB
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Exploring Research introduces students to the important topics in the general area L
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of research methods and does so in a nonintimidating and informative way. This
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book is not only intended for upper-level undergraduate students and graduate
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students in their first research methods course in the social, behavioral, and health
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sciences fields but also for students in public policy, government, journalism, and
related disciplines that have been introducing research methods courses to their R
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curriculum. Further, the 10th edition includes a step-by-step discussion of how to
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prepare a manuscript for submission to a journal for publication using the format E
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prescribed by the seventh edition of Publication Manual of the American Psychological
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Association. C
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Key Features:
• Appendix D, new to this edition, provides tips and tricks for using SPSS for data
analysis.
• New and updated material on the use of the Internet for research is provided,
with more information about conducting research and literature reviews online, T
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and new information on how social media can be used in a research context. N
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• Thorough coverage of ethics is provided, as this topic has become increasingly
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important. This includes coverage of the history of how ethical practices have D
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progressed, as well as brief coverage of some important case studies. T
TENTH EDITION
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NEIL J. SALKIND
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Exploring Research
Tenth Global Edition
Neil J. Salkind
University of Kansas
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Authorized adaptation from the United States edition, entitled Exploring Research, 9th Edition, ISBN 978‐0‐13‐423841‐8 by Neil J.
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For Sara, Micah, and Ted and my fellow
Sharks . . . Happy Laps
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Contents
Preface 9 Samples and Populations 36
New to the Edition 9 The Concept of Significance 36
How This Book Is Organized 9 Summary 37 • Exercises 37
What’s Special about This Book? 10
A Note to the Instructor 10 3A Selecting a Problem and Reviewing
How to Use This Book 11
the Research 40
Available Instructor Resources 11
A Big Thanks 11 Selecting a Problem 41
Global Edition Acknowledgments 11 Defining Your Interests 42
1 The Role and Importance of Research 13 Ideas, Ideas, Ideas (and What to Do with Them) 43
From Idea to Research Question to Hypothesis 44
Say Hello to Research! 13
Reviewing the Literature 45
What Research Is and What It Isn’t 14
Using General Sources 47
A Model of Scientific Inquiry 16 Using Secondary Sources 49
Asking the Question 16 Using Primary Sources 49
Identifying the Important Factors 17
Reading and Evaluating Research 55
Formulating a Hypothesis 18
What Does a Research Article Look Like? 56
Collecting Relevant Information 18
Criteria for Judging a Research Study 56
Testing the Hypothesis 18
Using Electronic Tools in Your Research Activities 57
Working with the Hypothesis 19
Searching Online 57
Reconsidering the Theory 19
Using Google Scholar for Your Literature Review 58
Asking New Questions 19
Using Bibliographic Database Programs 60
Different Types of Research 19
Using the Internet: Beyond Searches 62
Nonexperimental Research 20
Research Activities and the Internet 62
Experimental Research 22
A Bit about E-Mail 63
True Experimental Research 22
Open-Access Journal Articles 64
Quasi-Experimental Research 22
Using Social Media in Research 64
What Research Method to Use When? 23
Writing the Literature Review 67
Basic Research versus Applied Research 23 Summary 67 • Exercises 68
Summary 24 • Exercises 25
2 The Research Process 3B The Importance of Practicing Ethics
Coming to Terms 27 in Research 70
From Problem to Solution 27 A Bit of History 70
The Language of Research 29 Basic Principles of Ethical Research 71
All about Variables 29 Protection from Risk 72
Dependent Variables 29 Maintenance of Privacy 72
Independent Variables 30 Voluntary Participation 73
The Relationship between Independent and Informed Consent 73
Dependent Variables 31 Confidentiality 75
Other Important Types of Variables 31 Debriefing 75
Hypotheses 32 Sharing Benefits 75
The Null Hypothesis 32 Key Principles of Research Ethics 76
The Research Hypothesis 33 A Summary of Ethical Guidelines 76
Differences between the Null Hypothesis Ethics and Children 77
and the Research Hypothesis 34 Ethics Regarding Online Research 77
What Makes a Good Hypothesis? 34 Summary 78 • Exercises 79
5
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6 Contents
4 Sampling and Generalizability 80 Attitude Methods 114
Reaction-Time Tests 116
Populations and Samples 80 Observational Techniques 117
Probability Sampling Strategies 81 Techniques for Recording Behavior 117
Simple Random Sampling 81 Developing Effective Questionnaires 118
Systematic Sampling 83 Summary 121 • Exercises 122
Stratified Sampling 84
Cluster Sampling 85 7 Data Collection and Descriptive
Nonprobability Sampling Strategies 85 Statistics 123
Convenience Sampling 85
Quota Sampling 85 Getting Ready for Data Collection 123
Samples, Sample Size, and Sampling Error 86 The Data Collection Process 124
How Big Is Big? 87 Developing Your Datafile 124
Summary 88 • Exercises 88 Coding Data 125
The Ten Commandments of Data Collection 126
5 Measurement, Reliability, and Getting Ready for Data Analysis 128
Descriptive Statistics 128
Validity 90
Distributions of Scores 128
The Measurement Process 90 Comparing Distributions of Scores 128
Levels of Measurement 90 Measures of Central Tendency 129
Nominal 91 Computing Measures of Central Tendency
Ordinal 92 in IBM SPSS Statistics 131
Interval 92 Measures of Variability 132
Ratio 93 The Range 132
Continuous versus Discrete Variables 93 The Standard Deviation 132
What Is All the Fuss? 94 You and IBM SPSS Statistics—Computing
Reliability and Validity: Why They Are Very, Measures of Variability 133
Very Important 94 Understanding Distributions 133
A Conceptual Definition of Reliability 95 The Normal (Bell-Shaped) Curve 133
Increasing Reliability 96 The Mean and the Standard Deviation 134
How Reliability Is Measured 97 Standard Scores: Computing and Using z Scores 135
Types of Reliability 97 Computing z Scores in SPSS 136
Establishing Reliability: An Example 99
What z Scores Really, Really Mean 137
Calculating Internal Consistency Reliability Summary 137 • Exercises 138
with SPSS 100
Validity 101 8 Introducing Inferential Statistics 140
A Conceptual Definition of Validity 101
Types of Validity 102 Say Hello to Inferential Statistics! 140
Establishing Validity: An Example 103 How Inference Works 140
The Relationship between Reliability and Validity 105 The Role of Chance 141
Closing (and Very Important) Thoughts 105 The Central Limit Theorem 141
Summary 106 • Exercises 107 The Idea of Statistical Significance 143
Tests of Significance 144
6 Methods of Measuring Behavior 109 How a Test of Significance Works 144
t-Test for Independent Means 145
Tests and Their Development 110 How to Select the Appropriate Test 147
Why Use Tests? 110
You and SPSS—Computing a t-Value for a Test of
What Tests Look Like 111 Independent Means Using IBM SPSS Statistics 148
Types of Tests 112 Some Other Tests of Significance 149
Achievement Tests 112 Working with More Than One Dependent
Multiple-Choice Achievement Items 113 Variable 151
Personality Tests 114 Significance versus Meaningfulness 152
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Contents 7
Meta-Analysis 153 11 Pre- and True Experimental
How Meta-Analyses Are Done 153
Research Methods 180
Summary 154 • Exercises 155
Experimental Designs 181
Pre-Experimental Designs 181
9 Nonexperimental Research
True Experimental Designs 182
Descriptive and Correlational Methods 156 Internal and External Validity and Experimental
Design 184
Descriptive Research 156
Threats to Internal Validity 184
Survey Research 157
Threats to External Validity 186
How to Conduct Survey Research 159
Increasing Internal and External Validity 186
Correlational Research 161
Internal and External Validity: A Trade-Off? 187
The Relationship between Variables 161
Controlling Extraneous Variables 187
What Correlation Coefficients Look Like 161
Matching 188
Computing the Pearson Correlation Coefficient 162
Use of Homogeneous Groups 189
You and Excel—Computing a Correlation
Using the ToolPak 164 Analysis of Covariance 189
Summary 189 • Exercises 190
Interpreting the Pearson Correlation Coefficient 164
Summary 166 • Exercises 166
12 Quasi-Experimental Research
A Close Cousin to Experimental
10 Qualitative and Mixed Methods Research 192
Research
The Quasi-Experimental Method 192
Qualitative Methods 168 Quasi-Experimental Designs 193
Conducting Qualitative Research 168 The Nonequivalent Control Group Design 194
How Qualitative Research Differs 169 The Static Group Comparison 194
Research Sources 169 Single-Subject Designs 194
Documentation 169 Multiple Baseline Designs 196
Archival Records 169 Evaluating Single-Subject Designs 197
Social Media and Online Content 169 Developmental Research 197
Physical Artifacts 170 The Utility of Follow-Up Studies 199
Direct Observation 170 The Role of Age in Studying Development 199
Summary 200 • Exercises 201
Participant Observation 170
Focus Groups 170
13 Writing a Research Proposal 202
One-to-one Interviews 171
Case Studies 171 The Format of a Research Proposal 202
Some Advantages of the Case Study Method 172 Appearance 203
Some Disadvantages of the Case Study Method 172 Evaluating the Studies You Read 203
Ethnographies 173 Criteria for Judging a Research Study 204
Historical Research 173 Planning the Actual Research 205
Conducting Historical Research 174 Selecting Appropriate Dependent Variable Measures 206
The Steps in Historical Research 174 Reviewing a Test 207
Sources of Historical Data 175 Basic Information 207
Primary or Secondary Sources: General Test Information 207
Which Are Best? 176 Design and Appearance 207
Authenticity and Accuracy 176 Reliability 207
The Limitations of Historical Research 177 Validity 208
Mixed Methods Research 177 Norms 208
Qualitative Data Analysis Software 178 Evaluation 208
Summary 178 • Exercises 179 Selecting a Sample 208
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8 Contents
Data Collection and Analysis 209 Table Captions 213
Selecting an Inferential Statistic 209 Tables 213
Maintaining High Research Ethics Standards 209 Figure Captions 213
Summary 209 • Exercises 210 Figures 213
Nuts and Bolts 214
14 Writing a Research Manuscript 211 Summary 214
What a Manuscript Looks Like 211 Appendix A: Fifty Excel Shortcuts for
Mac and Windows 237
Title Page 211
Abstract 212 Appendix B: Sample Data Set 240
Introduction 212 Appendix C: Answers to End-of-Chapter
Method 212 Exercises 245
Results 213 Appendix D: Setting Up an IBM SPSS Datafile 261
Discussion 213
Bibliography 263
References 213
Glossary 265
Appendices 213
Credits 270
Author Notes 213
Footnotes 213 Index 271
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Preface
I’ve been very lucky. I have had the privilege of teach- end-of-chapter questions should go at the end of the
ing introductory research methods and have been able book in a separate appendix (Appendix C) of its own.
to share all that I know and continue to learn about this • The online sources for more exploration are increased
fascinating topic. Exploring Research reflects much of what by about 25% as well.
has taken place in my classrooms over those years.
• Updated and new coverage of software for dealing
This book is intended for upper-level undergraduate stu-
with qualitative data and the development and refine-
dents and graduate students in their first research methods
ment of bibliographies.
course in the social, behavioral, and health sciences fields.
• Inserted after many sections are questions that will help
These students are the primary audience. But, lately, other
the reader summarize the content in that part of the
disciplines have been introducing research methods courses
chapter and serve, if so desired, as a taking-off point for
to their curriculum, such as public policy, government, jour-
discussion. These Test Yourself questions don’t necessarily
nalism, and related fields, and students there have been using
have a right or a wrong answer—they are there to help
Exploring Research as well. And, recently, even such fields as
facilitate thinking and discussion about the topic at hand.
American Studies and Ethnomusicology have started incor-
porating the types of methods we talk about here. • The material on the use of the Internet for research is up-
Exploring Research is intended to provide an introduc- dated with more information about conducting research
tion to the important topics in the general area of research and literature reviews online and including new informa-
methods and to do so in a nonintimidating and informa- tion on how social media can be used in a research context.
tive way. The continued existence of Exploring R esearch Information on previous topics such as e-mail, that were
means that the audience for a straightforward and unas- once new to our research endeavors, but are now old hat,
suming presentation of this material still exists, and I be- has been significantly reduced to allow room for other ma-
lieve that audience is growing. I’m grateful for those who terial such as expanded and updated coverage.
have chosen to use this book. • Appendices A and D provide some tips and tricks for
using Excel and SPSS for data analysis, respectively.
New to the Edition • The last chapter contains information about the use of
the latest, seventh, edition of the Publication Manual of
Many of the changes are the result of suggestions from stu-
the American Psychological Association.
dents and faculty. Here are the major changes in this ninth
edition.
• Both SPSS and Excel are the tools of choice for any How This Book Is Organized
data analysis discussions that take place. This is be-
Exploring Research is organized into 14 chapters (with
cause Excel is available almost everywhere including
a big and little Chapters 3A and 3B, respectively) and
colleges, universities, and other institutions and many
four appendices. Chapter 1, The Role and Importance of
users of this book already have it installed on their own
Research, covers the basics about the scientific method
computers. I am assuming that even the beginning re-
and includes a brief description of the different types of
search methods students have some rudimentary com-
research that are most commonly used in the social and
puter and Excel skills. SPSS is a widely used software
behavioral sciences.
across the globe for data analysis.
Chapter 2, The Research Process: Coming to Terms,
• More coverage of ethics because this is becoming in-
focuses on some of the basic terms and concepts in
creasingly important as a topic that beginning research-
research methods, including variables, samples, popula-
ers need to know about. There’s more on the history of
tions, hypotheses, and the concept of significance.
how ethical practices have progressed as well as a brief
The first step for any researcher is the selection of a
coverage of some important case studies.
problem, which is what Chapter 3A, Selecting a Problem
• After lots of discussion with faculty who have adopt- and Reviewing the Research, is all about. Here, you will learn
ed this book, it was decided that the answers to the how to use the library and its vast resources to help you
9
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