Table Of ContentCritical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series
Series Editor: Mark Beeson, Professor of International Politics, Murdoch
University, Australia
Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific showcases new research and scholarship on what
is arguably the most important region in the world in the twenty-first century. The
rise of China and the continuing strategic importance of this dynamic economic
area to the United States mean that the Asia Pacific will remain crucially impor-
tant to policymakers and scholars alike. The unifying theme of the series is a
desire to publish the best theoretically-informed, original research on the region.
Titles in the series cover the politics, economics and security of the region, as
well as focussing on its institutional processes, individual countries, issues and
leaders.
Titles include:
Thomas Birtchnell
INDOVATION
Innovation and a Global Knowledge Economy in India
Lindsay Black
JAPAN’S MARITIME SECURITY STRATEGY
The Japan Coast Guard and Maritime Outlaws
Aurel Croissant, David Küehn, Philip Lorenz and Paul W. Chambers
DEMOCRATIZATION AND CIVILIAN CONTROL IN ASIA
Giovanna Maria Dora Dore, Jae H. Ku and Karl Jackson (editors)
INCOMPLETE DEMOCRACIES IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
Evidence from Indonesia, Korea, the Philippines and Thailand
Kelly Gerard
ASEAN’s ENGAGEMENT OF CIVIL SOCIETY
Regulating Dissent
Felix Heiduk (editor)
SECURITY SECTOR REFORM IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
From Policy to Practice
Brendan Howe
THE PROTECTION AND PROMOTION OF HUMAN SECURITY IN EAST ASIA
Jane Hutchison, Wil Hout, Caroline Hughes and Richard Robison
POLITICAL ECONOMY AND THE AID INDUSTRY IN ASIA
Lee Jones
ASEAN, SOVEREIGNTY AND INTERVENTION IN SOUTHEAST ASIA
Eun Mee Kim and Pil Ho Kim (editors)
THE SOUTH KOREAN DEVELOPMENT EXPERIENCE
Beyond Aid
Jikon Lai
FINANCIAL CRISIS AND INSTITUTIONAL CHANGE IN EAST ASIA
J onathan London (editor)
POLITICS IN CONTEMPORARY VIETNAM
Party, State, and Authority Relations
Arndt Michael
INDIA’S FOREIGN POLICY AND REGIONAL MULTILATERALISM
Zulfan Tadjoeddin
EXPLAINING COLLECTIVE VIOLENCE IN CONTEMPORARY INDONESIA
Claudia Tazreiter and Siew Yean Tham (editors)
GLOBALIZATION AND SOCIAL TRANSFORMATION IN THE ASIA-PACIFIC
The Australian and Malayasian Experience
Sow Keat Tok
MANAGING CHINA’S SOVEREIGNTY IN HONG KONG AND TAIWAN
William Tow and Rikki Kersten (editors)
BILATERAL PERSPECTIVES ON REGIONAL SECURITY
Australia, Japan and the Asia-Pacific Region
Barry Wain
MALAYSIAN MAVERICK
Mahathir Mohamad in Turbulent Times
Mikael Weissmann
THE EAST ASIAN PEACE
Conflict Prevention and Informal Peacebuilding
Robert G. Wirsing, Christopher Jasparro and Daniel C. Stoll
INTERNATIONAL CONFLICT OVER WATER RESOURCES IN HIMALAYAN ASIA
Critical Studies of the Asia Pacific Series
Series Standing Order ISBN 978–0–230–22896–2 (Hardback)
978–0–230–22897–9 (Paperback)
(outside North America only)
You can receive future titles in this series as they are published by placing a standing order.
Please contact your bookseller or, in case of difficulty, write to us at the address below with
your name and address, the title of the series and one of the ISBNs quoted above.
Customer Services Department, Macmillan Distribution Ltd, Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS, England
Explaining Collective
Violence in Contemporary
Indonesia: From Conflict
to Cooperation
Mohammad Zulfan Tadjoeddin
Senior Lecturer in Development Studies,
University of Western Sydney, Australia
© Mohammad Zulfan Tadjoeddin 2014
Softcover reprint of the hardcover 1st edition 2014 978-1-137-27063-4
All rights reserved. No reproduction, copy or transmission of this
publication may be made without written permission.
No portion of this publication may be reproduced, copied or transmitted
save with written permission or in accordance with the provisions of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, or under the terms of any licence
permitting limited copying issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency,
Saffron House, 6–10 Kirby Street, London EC1N 8TS.
Any person who does any unauthorized act in relation to this publication
may be liable to criminal prosecution and civil claims for damages.
The author has asserted his right to be identified as the author of this work
in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
First published 2014 by
PALGRAVE MACMILLAN
Palgrave Macmillan in the UK is an imprint of Macmillan Publishers Limited,
registered in England, company number 785998, of Houndmills, Basingstoke,
Hampshire RG21 6XS.
Palgrave Macmillan in the US is a division of St Martin’s Press LLC,
175 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY 10010.
Palgrave Macmillan is the global academic imprint of the above companies
and has companies and representatives throughout the world.
Palgrave® and Macmillan® are registered trademarks in the United States,
the United Kingdom, Europe and other countries
ISBN 978-1-349-44443-4 ISBN 978-1-137-27064-1 (eBook)
DOI 10.1057/9781137270641
This book is printed on paper suitable for recycling and made from fully
managed and sustained forest sources. Logging, pulping and manufacturing
processes are expected to conform to the environmental regulations of the
country of origin.
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.
Contents
List of Figures vii
List of Tables viii
Acknowledgements x
List of Abbreviations xii
1 Introduction 1
Setting the context: a study of Indonesia 1
Objective and approach 5
Conflict and cooperation in post-independent Indonesia 6
A brief tour of the book 21
2 Conflict and Violence in Indonesia: A Background 23
Internal conflicts since independence 23
Crisis, transition and conflict 30
The case for the economics of conflict 35
A brief note on methodology 39
3 Secessionist (Centre–Regional) Conflicts 42
Introduction 42
The conflicts 42
The economic origins 48
The decentralization response 59
A future resource curse? 6 1
Conclusion 74
4 Ethnic Violence 75
Introduction 75
Conflict and cooperation: a framework 78
A possible element of greed 84
Methodology 90
Results 102
Discussion and conclusion 108
5 Routine-Everyday Violence 112
Introduction 112
Socio-economic development and routine violence 116
v
vi Contents
Population pressure and inequality 120
Decentralization and routine violence 137
Conclusion 150
6 Local Electoral Violence 153
Introduction 153
Development, democracy and electoral conflict 157
Data and methodology 162
Analysis of regression results 169
Conclusion 172
7 Conclusion 175
Main findings 175
Key policy messages 178
Some wider implications 179
Looking forward 180
Notes 183
References 202
Index 217
List of Figures
2.1 D eaths and incidents of (non-secessionist) violence in
Indonesia, 1990–2003 3 2
3.1 M ap of secessionist conflicts 4 3
3.2 I nter-provincial regional income convergence, 1976–96 50
3.3 C onvergence in poverty reduction, 1976–96 51
3.4 R egional inequalities of regional prosperity and
community welfare, 1996 5 2
3.5 P er capita GDP and household expenditure of
Indonesia’s provinces, 1996 5 3
4.1 M ap of ethnic violence 7 7
4.2a C onverging gaps of educational attainment in Maluku,
1990–95 8 2
4.2b C onverging gaps of educational attainment in Poso,
1990–95 8 2
4.3 E ducation and consumption poverty 96
4.4 E ducation and capability poverty 97
4.5 R elative deprivation in terms of education–poverty gap 99
4.6 R elative deprivation in terms of education–poverty gap 99
5.1 R outine-everyday violence in Java, 1990–2003 113
5.2 I ncidence of routine-everyday violence in four
Javanese provinces, 1990–2003 1 14
5.3 I ncome, education and routine violence in Java,
1994–2003 1 20
5.4 V iolence, income and vertical inequality 133
vii
List of Tables
3.1 The four rich regions: characteristics of resources and
conflict 4 4
3.2 Regional prosperity and community welfare 49
3.3 Poverty in resource-rich regions, 1976 and 1996 54
3.4 Poverty and welfare gap, 1996 and 2007 56
3.5 Total governments’ (province and districts) revenue 62
3.6 Progress in social indicators, 1999–2010 68
3.7 Annual growth of per capita RGDP, 2000–10 69
3.8 Sectoral regional GDP: tradable and non-tradable 73
4.1 Major episodes of ethnic violence in contemporary
Indonesia 7 6
4.2 Convergence type 2 8 0
4.3 Permanent in-migration from Java 81
4.4 Inter-ethnic political coalitions in ethnic violence-ridden
regions 8 7
4.5 Relative deprivation in terms of income–welfare/HDI gap 95
4.6 Grievance and greed models 1 03
4.7 Cooperation model 1 05
4.8 Count data regression of grievance model 107
4.9 2SLS regression of grievance and cooperation models 107
5.1 Influential districts in the provincial trend of routine
violence, 2001–03 115
5.2 Determinants of routine violence in Java, 1994–2003 118
5.3 Population density by main islands, 2005 123
5.4 Gini coefficient, 1994–2003 124
5.5 Population pyramid, 2003 125
5.6 Routine violence and population pressure 130
5.7 Gini, income and violence: two-stage regression 132
5.8 Gini, income and violence: 2SLS regression 132
5.9 Joint effects of inequality and population pressure 134
5.10 Violence, population density and inequality, 1994–2003 136
5.11 Violence, GDP growth and human development,
1994–2003 1 37
5 .12 Fiscal decentralization and routine violence (A) –
cross-section observation 144
viii
List of Tables ix
5.13 Fiscal decentralization and routine violence (B) –
panel observation 145
5.14 Relative size of the state and routine violence
(A – revenue) – panel observation 146
5.15 Structure of district revenue in Java (98 districts in
four provinces) 147
5.16 Relative size of the state and routine violence
(B – expenditure) – panel observation 149
6.1 Districts PILKADA by hostility levels, 2005–07 167
6.2 PILKADA by cleavages of electoral hostility 168
6.3 PILKADA by timing at the peak of electoral hostility 168
6.4 Electoral hostility and socio-economic indicators, 2005 169
6.5 Determinants of electoral hostility 170
