Table Of ContentSpringer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
Bruno Chanetz · Jean Délery ·
Patrick Gilliéron · Patrick Gnemmi ·
Erwin R. Gowree · Philippe Perrier
Experimental
Aerodynamics
An Introductory Guide
Springer Tracts in Mechanical Engineering
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é é
Bruno Chanetz Jean D lery Patrick Gilli ron
(cid:129) (cid:129) (cid:129)
Patrick Gnemmi Erwin R. Gowree
(cid:129) (cid:129)
Philippe Perrier
Experimental Aerodynamics
An Introductory Guide
123
BrunoChanetz JeanDélery
ONERA ONERA
Meudon, France Meudon, France
Patrick Gilliéron Patrick Gnemmi
French Aeronauticaland ISL
Astronautical Society Saint-Louis, France
Paris, France
Philippe Perrier
Erwin R. Gowree Dassault Aviation
ISAE-SUPAERO Paris, France
Toulouse, France
ISSN 2195-9862 ISSN 2195-9870 (electronic)
SpringerTracts inMechanical Engineering
ISBN978-3-030-35561-6 ISBN978-3-030-35562-3 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-35562-3
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Foreword
I had a great pleasure reading this book about experimental aerodynamics.
It stems largely from the skills gathered within the Aerodynamics Technical
Committee of the French Aeronautical and Astronautical Society (3AF); skills
valued by what is called “Collective Intelligence”.
All the contributions were organised by Jean Délery, who directs with passion
and with a keen interest for pedagogy this Technical Committee, whose qualities
are recognised worldwide.
Forallthosewhoexpressaninterestoracuriosityforthesubject,Irecommend
reading this book.
They will discover a broad and diverse range of fields of application of aero-
dynamics,aswellasthehistoryandthestateoftheartoftheexperimentaldevices
and their ever-increasing capabilities. Readers will also understand that the oppo-
sitions that fuelled the discussions a few years ago, between experimental studies
and numerical simulations, no longer have any reason to exist: there is perfect
complementarity, even enrichment, for the best representation of physical phe-
nomena, while enriching our knowledge.
Engineers in charge of developing new products will find in this book the
information necessary for the success of their work.
Iwishthatmanypeoplewillappreciatethisbook,andthattheyalltakeasmuch
pleasure and interest as when I read it.
This one must find the best spot in the library of an engineer.
Michel Scheller
President of the French Aeronautical
and Astronautical Society
v
Preface
The purpose of this book is to present an inventory of experimental facilities and
techniques commonly utilised in the field of aerodynamics, which remains para-
mount for the design of aerial and ground vehicles, propulsion and energy gener-
ation systems, and, also in the civil engineering industry and in more fundamental
environmental flow studies, but not limited to these. Aerodynamic studies do not
only target the improvement of vehicle performance and comfort, but also, more
and more, the emission of greenhouse gases within the earth’s atmosphere and
noise within the neighbourhood of residential areas. Due to the ever-increasing
demandofbothaerialandgroundtransportation,theseemissionsrequireimmediate
moderation in order to sustain this industry, and improvement in aerodynamic
performance is definitely a way forward. The book also aims to provide updated
information on the means and techniques used by aerodynamicists, and more
generally in the field offluid mechanics. In particular, a large part is dedicated to
measurement techniques and instrumentations which have undergone tremendous
improvementsoverthelast40years.TheseimprovementsAllowingaccesstovery
precisediagnostictechniquesandhenceincreasingourknowledgeofthebehaviour
of highly complex flows. This remarkable development can be compared with the
equally impressive progress in the field of computational fluid dynamics (CFD).
Measurement and instrumentation is a stimulating field in its own right and has
greatlybenefitedfromthemostadvancedknowledgeofbasicphysics,mainlywave
theory,opticsandsignalprocessing,andmathematics.Thisbook,however,retains
ageneralcharacter;thereaderswishingtodeepentheirknowledgeinthesubjectare
referred to more specialised literature in the field of measurement techniques. The
targeted readers are graduate students and engineers wishing to embark on the
theme of experimental aerodynamics.
vii
viii Preface
After a presentation of the objectives and a brief introduction to methods of
experimental aerodynamics, as well as related issues and limitations in Chaps. 1
and 2, the book devotes a large part to the description of wind tunnels and mea-
surementtechniques.Itisnotacatalogueofexistingfacilitiesbutapresentationof
someofthemosttypicalwindtunnelsinspecificfieldsofapplication(aeronautics,
space exploration, automobile, railway, energy production, civil engineering, etc.)
predominantlyinFrance,butalsoinothercountries.However,thereisnoabsolute
demarcation between facilities, as “aeronautical” wind tunnel can be also used to
test ground vehicles or wind turbines, for example. Emphasis is placed on the
particular problems encountered during design, production and operation, accord-
ingly with the simulated speeds, ranging from low subsonic to hypersonic. It is
appropriate to distinguish between industrial wind tunnels intended for the devel-
opment of prototypes, by testing either scaled-down models or full-scale vehicle
itself, and the research wind tunnels devoted to the detailed study of particular
phenomena such as separation, laminar-to-turbulent transition, etc. However, there
may be an overlap between the two types offacilities.
Chapter 3 deals with subsonic wind tunnels, while presenting a wide range of
facilities to cover the needs of aeronautics, automotive and civil engineering
industries, energy production, etc. We are also interested in presenting facilities
dedicated to study the effects of adverse weather conditions such as rain, ice and
snow on ground vehicles or ice accretion on aircraft. Also an extensive survey of
aeroacoustic wind tunnels whose purpose is to characterise the noise generated by
the flow over the overall vehicle or individual parts such as aircraft landing gears,
flap and control surfaces, jet engines, side mirrors or other isolated surfaces.
Transonic wind tunnels in Chap. 4 occupy a strategic place as they are pri-
mordial for commercial and business aviation, as well as military aircraft both
mannedandunmannedcombataerialvehicle(UCAV).Thetransonicregimeisalso
of interest for turbomachinery and jet engines, and high-speed trains’ tunnel entry.
These facilities are rather limited because of particular design and operation chal-
lengesrelatedtotheoccurrenceofcomplexflowphenomenawhileoperatinginthe
vicinity of the speed of sound.
Chapter 5 deals with supersonic wind tunnels which cover the needs of
high-speed applications for the design and optimisation offighter aircraft, missiles
and ammunition and space launchers while flying within the earth’s atmosphere.
Otherapplicationswheresupersonicregimeisencounteredareengineintakeswhile
operating at maximum power, supersonic intakes and nozzles, and other instances
when the flow accelerates rapidly due to large convergences and curvatures.
Hypersonic flows covered in Chap. 6 are of great interest again in military
applications such as for the design of hypervelocity tactical missiles, strategic
missilesandprojectiles.Inthespacelaunchersandexplorationfield,thisregimeis
encounteredduringthere-entryofvehiclesintoearth’satmospherebutalsoinother
atmospheressuchasthoseofMarsandVenus.Spacelaunchersarealsoofconcern
Preface ix
while exiting Earth's atmosphere at high altitude. The realisation of hypersonic
testingrequiresthegenerationofflowsnotonlyathighMachnumberbutalsowith
high specific energy. Because of the very high speeds encountered during the
atmospheric re-entry, high levels of thermodynamic effects are present.
Much of the book is devoted to the means of diagnosis and characterisation of
flows, including very valuable visualisation techniques presented in Chap. 7, and
themeasurementoftheaerodynamicforcesandmomentsexertedonthevehicleby
the fluid in motion is addressed in Chap. 8. The determination of the surface
properties such as pressure, skin friction and heat transfer is of fundamental
importance in most applications; the techniques are visited in Chap. 9. In addition
tothetraditionalmeasurementbystaticpressureatthewallusingpressuretappings,
the use of more recently developed Pressure Sensitive Paints (PSP) allows for the
global wall pressure distribution over a larger and sometimes whole part of the
model to be captured without the need for discrete intrusive, expensive and cum-
bersome pressure sensors and data acquisition system. Similar progress is made in
the measurement of heat transfer while increasingly competing with optical
methods like infrared thermography or the use of temperature-sensitive paints
(TSP).
The local properties of the flow (pressure and velocity in particular) are still
determined by standard means such as pressure probes or thermocouples for the
stagnationpressureandtemperature.Hotwireisstillwidelyusedfortime-averaged
velocity measurements, and due to its very short response time, it is still the most
reliable technique for measurement of velocity fluctuations and turbulence scales,
and this will be covered in Chap. 10.
Chapter 11 presents the so-called non-intrusive techniques for in situ measure-
mentofflowproperties,mainlyvelocity.Thisisanessentialpartofthebook.These
means of characterisation of flows have undergone a real breakthrough with the
advent of more affordable lasers and remarkable advances in the field of optronics
and data processing. At first, laser Doppler velocimetry (LDV) and then particle
image velocimetry (PIV) have been essential tools to capture and resolve very
complex flow phenomena and have now become commonplace in almost all
aerodynamics laboratories.
The development of techniques based on the excitation of molecules or atoms
of the gas by laser or electron beam has allowed the development of methods
without the need to seed the flow by particles, unlike in LDV and PIV.
Spectroscopic techniques give access to the gas properties such as pressure, tem-
perature, density and also to its velocity and composition in the case of reactive
flows.Theyarewidelyusedinthestudyofhypersonicflowsandwillbediscussed
in Chap. 12.
x Preface
FLOW STRUCTURE FLOWFIELD
Visualisation techniques
Velocity, pressure, temperature
Surface flow viscous coating Intrusive techniques
Pitot, Prandtlprobes
laser sheet multi-hole probe
Vortices and wakes
water tunnel thermocouples
hot wire/hot film
Shock waves interferometry Non intrusive techniques
Wakes shadograph, Schlieren
Slip lines laser beam interferometry
glow discharge LDV
DGV (PDV)
PIV
Species, temperature, density
Spectroscopic techniques
Laser absorption
SURFACE PROPERTIES Rayleighscattering
Ramanscattering
orifices+sensors
CARS,DLCARS
Pressure PSP LIF (PLIF)
EBF
floating element pseudo-spark
hot film, hot wire
Preston tube
Shear stress
oil wedge
liquid crystals
logarithmic law
The diagram above summarises the methodology to be used while analysing a
flow, from the visualisations giving an idea of its global structure, through global
measurements offorces, and then wall properties moving towards detailed explo-
rationofthelocalquantities.Themethodslistedinthetablearedetailedasthemain
content of the book. Chapter 13 is devoted to ongoing developments to build a
methodology that tightly couples experiments and numerical simulations. The
purposeofthisinnovativeapproachistotakeintoaccountthespuriouseffectsfrom
wind tunnel testing, to supplement measurements and to ensure close coupling to
optimisemodeldesign,testpreparation,windtunneloperationandinterpretationof
results. This is the computer-assisted wind tunnel, associated with the reconstruc-
tion, or assimilation, of data whose goal is to reconstitute, with the help of CFD,
a field from dispersed measurements. This area has known many important
developments.
Finally, Chap. 14 proposes a review of the status quo of experimental aerody-
namicsby trying to project a vision of this discipline and to define theproblems it
will face in the years to come.
On such a vast topic, it is difficult to establish an exhaustive bibliography. For
this reason, only general publications on experimental aerodynamics and publi-
cations highlighting recent and outstanding work in the facilities described have
