Table Of ContentPALGRAVE STUDIES IN
EUROPEAN UNION POLITICS
Series Editors: Michelle Egan, Neill Nugent
and William E. Paterson
EUROPE AND IRAN’S
NUCLEAR CRISIS
Lead Groups and EU
Foreign Policy-Making
Riccardo Alcaro
Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics
Series Editors
Michelle Egan
American University
Washington, DC, USA
Neill Nugent
Manchester Metropolitan University
Manchester, UK
William E. Paterson
Aston University
Birmingham, UK
Following on the sustained success of the acclaimed European Union
Series, which essentially publishes research-based textbooks, Palgrave
Studies in European Union Politics publishes cutting edge research-driven
monographs. The remit of the series is broadly defined, both in terms of
subject and academic discipline. All topics of significance concerning the
nature and operation of the European Union potentially fall within the
scope of the series. The series is multidisciplinary to reflect the growing
importance of the European Union as a political, economic and social
phenomenon.
More information about this series at
http://www.palgrave.com/gp/series/14629
Riccardo Alcaro
Europe and Iran’s
Nuclear Crisis
Lead Groups and EU Foreign Policy-Making
Riccardo Alcaro
Istituto Affari Internazionali
Rome, Italy
Palgrave Studies in European Union Politics
ISBN 978-3-319-74297-7 ISBN 978-3-319-74298-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-74298-4
Library of Congress Control Number: 2018933587
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A
cknowledgements
This book is the culmination of many years of work. It all started in 2008,
when I was awarded a grant by the European Foreign and Security Policy
Studies (EFSPS) programme to carry out a research project on Europe’s
role in the Iranian nuclear crisis. Several people helped me throughout this
period. My thanks go first to Prof. Thomas Diez from the University of
Tübingen, and his never ending patience. His advice was instrumental in
supporting me when my research seemed to have lost direction and in
making that research more solid and coherent, both in its theory and
empirical parts. My thanks also go to Nathalie Tocci, a friend and long-
time colleague at the Istituto Affari Internazionali (IAI) in Rome—and
now its director. Nathalie’s sharp mind and deep grasp of how EU foreign
policy works helped me fill the gaps in the early versions of my work.
There are many other people among IAI’s team to whom I owe my grati-
tude: Daniela Huber, who took the time to read the book and gave me
invaluable suggestions on how to improve the theory chapter; Alessandra
Bertino, IAI’s irreplaceable librarian, who never failed to find the source
materials I desperately needed; and Ettore Greco, IAI’s former director,
who granted me the opportunity to dedicate part of my working time to
writing this book. The many officials from France, Germany, Italy, the UK
and EU institutions whom I interviewed deserve a special mention.
Without their insights this book would have never been possible. Finally,
I am indebted to the team at Palgrave Macmillan, in particular Imogen
Gordon Clark and Ambra Finotello, for their patience and assistance, as
well as to the anonymous reviewer for the pointed, but always pertinent
and constructive, remarks.
v
c
ontents
1 Introduction: The E3/EU Iran Group 1
Part I Theory and History 21
2 The Theory: Lead Groups and EU Foreign
Policy-Making 23
3 The History: The 2003–16 Iran Nuclear Crisis 59
Part II The Creation and Endurance of the E3/EU 91
4 The Bargain: How the E3/EU Came About 93
5 The Discourse: Why the E3/EU Endured 117
Part III The E3/EU in Action 141
6 The Premise: The Underneath Continuity in the
E3/EU’s Iran Policy 143
vii
viii CoNTENTS
7 The Action/1: E3 Leadership and EU Ownership 157
8 The Action/2: The E3/EU and the United States 181
9 The Outcome: The E3/EU as Identity Shapers 203
10 Conclusion: The E3/EU and EU Foreign Policy 225
Appendix: Timeline of Iran’s Nuclear Crisis 2002–16 243
Bibliography 253
Index 281
A
bbreviAtions
AEoI Atomic Energy organisation of Iran
Brexit British exit from the European Union
CBI Central Bank of Iran
CFSP Common Foreign and Security Policy (EU)
CIA Central Intelligence Agency (US)
CISADA Comprehensive Iran Sanctions, Accountability and Divestment
Act (US)
E3 France, Germany and the United Kingdom
E3/EU France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the High
Representative for CFSP (later Foreign Affairs and Security
Policy) (EU)
E3/EU+3 France, Germany, the United Kingdom and the High
Representative plus China, Russia and the United States
ESS European Security Strategy (EU)
EU European Union
EUGS European Union Global Strategy
FAC Foreign Affairs Council (formerly GAERC) (EU)
FCo Foreign and Commonwealth office (UK)
GAERC General Affairs and External Relations Council (later FAC)
(EU)
GCC Gulf Cooperation Council
HEU Highly Enriched Uranium
HR High Representative for CFSP (later for Foreign Affairs and
Security Policy) (EU)
IAEA International Atomic Energy Agency
ix
x ABBREvIATIoNS
ILSA Iran-Libya Sanctions Act (later ISA) (US)
INARA Iran Nuclear Agreement Review Act (US)
IRGC Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps (Iran)
IRISL Islamic Republic of Iran Shipping Line
ISA Iran Sanctions Act (formerly ILSA) (US)
JCPoA Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (E3/EU+3-Iran final
nuclear deal)
JPoA Joint Plan of Action (E3/EU+3-Iran interim nuclear deal)
LEU Low-Enriched Uranium
LWR Light Water Reactor
MEPP Middle East Peace Process
NCRI National Council of Resistance of Iran
NDAA National Defence Authorisation Act (US)
NIE National Intelligence Estimate (US)
NIoC National Iranian oil Company
NPT Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty
NSS National Security Strategy (US)
P5+1 China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom and the United
States plus Germany (and the European Union), officially
E3/EU+3
PDA Political Dialogue Agreement (EU)
PMDs Potential Military Dimensions of Iran’s Nuclear Programme
PSC Political and Security Committee (EU)
R&D Research and Development
SNSC Supreme National Security Council (Iran)
TCA Trade and Cooperation Agreement (EU)
TEU Treaty on the European Union
UF Uranium Hexafluoride
6
UK United Kingdom
UN United Nations
UNGA United Nations General Assembly
UNSC United Nations Security Council
UNSCR United Nations Security Council Resolution
US United States
WMD Weapons of Mass Destruction
