Ethnicities and Tribes in Sub-Saharan Africa: Opening Old Wounds

113 Pages·2017·2.99 MB·English

by  S. N. Sangmpam (auth.)

Ethnicities and Tribes
in Sub-Saharan Africa
S.N.Sangmpam
Ethnicities
and Tribes
in Sub-Saharan
Africa
Opening Old Wounds
S.N.Sangmpam
SyracuseUniversity
Syracuse,USA
ISBN978-3-319-50199-4 ISBN978-3-319-50200-7(eBook)
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-50200-7
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A
CKNOWLEDGEMENT
IwanttothankprofessorsSalikokoMufweneoftheUniversityofChicago
and Valentin Mudimbe of Duke University for their very helpful com-
mentsonthemanuscript.Ialone,however,beartheresponsibilityforany
errorof conceptualization andinterpretation.
v
C
ONTENTS
1 Introduction 1
2 Tribe,Ethnicity, andColonial Rule 7
3 TheParticularity ofTribal Allegiancein SSA 17
4 TheProfusion of Tribesasa Determinant Factor in SSA 31
5 Tribeis notEthnicity: Anti-TribeandPro-Ethnicity
Arguments areUntenable 41
6 TribeIs Not aComponent of Ethnicity 51
7 TribalAllegianceand theOverstated Role
ofthe Colonial State 61
8 PrecolonialHistoryand the SaliencyandPersistence
ofTribal Allegiance 83
9 Conclusion: WhyDoesit Matter? 91
Bibliography 99
Index 107
vii
L T
IST OF ABLES
Table4.1 SuggestedhigherrankingofSub-SaharanAfrica(SSA)
innumberoftribes,accordingtoPrice(1989) 35
Table4.2 ActualsubregionaldistributionoftribesinSub-Saharan
Africa 35
ix
CHAPTER1
Introduction
Abstract The Introduction defines the study problem. It describes how
the two issues of the nature and origin of tribal identity in Sub-Saharan
Africa(SSA)havenotonlybeenpartofthedebateinAfricanStudiessince
the 1970s, but have also been raised and debated by political leaders and
ordinary citizens in SSA. It raises the two core questions of the study,
statesthestudy’smainthree-pointargument,discussesthebenefitsofthe
studyanditsmethods, anddescribes thecontent of the bookchapters.
Keywords Ethnicity(cid:1)Ethnicconflicts(cid:1)Tribe(cid:1)Tribalinterests(cid:1)Tribalism(cid:1)
Ethnic conflicts (cid:1) Colonial state (cid:1) African Studies (cid:1) Social theory (cid:1)
Precolonial history
Thisstudydealswithtworelatedclaimsmadeintheliteratureon“ethni-
city” in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). First, that the population of SSA
consists of “ethnicities” rather than “tribes.” Second, that colonial rule
explains the genesis, saliency, and persistence of tribal allegiance and
conflictsinSSA.Iarguethatbothclaimsarequestionableonconceptual,
historical,andempiricalgrounds.TribesinSSAdisplayaparticularitythat
prevents them from being equated with “ethnicity” or being viewed as a
creationof colonialrule.
When Yoweri Museveni took power in Uganda in 1986, he shunned
competitive,multiparty-basedpoliticsinfavorofaone-manno-partyrule.
©TheAuthor(s)2017 1
S.N.Sangmpam,EthnicitiesandTribesinSub-SaharanAfrica,
DOI10.1007/978-3-319-50200-7_1
2 ETHNICITIESANDTRIBESINSUB-SAHARANAFRICA
HeclaimedthatdemocraticruleisnotpossibleinAfricabecausetribesand
tribal interests do not allow for a smooth exercise of democratic rule. He
has,forthepast31years,heldthisview.Thisisaviewthathasalsobeen
expressed by many other political leaders in SSA both before and after
Museveni took power. There is no doubt that the claim is made to
neutralize the opposition and to seize and consolidate authoritarian
powerfortheclaimants.Yet,fortherecentperiod,theavailableevidence
does support their claims. In the post-1990 period, when most countries
inSSAmovedfromauthoritarianismtodemocracy,electionsandattempts
at democratic governance in most of these countries have been driven by
tribal considerations. Only a very few countries can defend a record of
non-tribalexerciseofdemocracy.Thereismuchanecdotalevidenceofthis
to be found on the internet. In November 2012, for instance, the BBC
News site published an opinion piece by Calestous Juma,1 in which the
author argued that “tribalism stunts African democracy.” Narrow tribal
interests, he opined, do not allow the emergence of genuine political
parties that compete on the basis of democratic ideas. Instead, these
interests thrive on zero-sum games for parochial and self-preservation
gains. Juma advocated the creation of idea-driven political parties to
replace tribes and to foster democracy. Other similar opinion pieces have
flooded the internet. As is often the case in this type of internet-based
discussion, there are responses and comments from the readers of the
pieces.
Indiscussing“tribalism”anddemocraticchange,thesepostingsimpli-
citly,andsometimesexplicitly,raisetworelatedissues.Thefirstissueisthe
nature of tribal identity in SSA. Some of the discussants agree with Juma
(and Museveni) that tribalism stems from tribal identity, which is part of
andanchoredinthemindsetofSSA.Itis“partoftheAfricancivilization”
that differentiates it from Western civilization. As one of the responders
putit:“Thedisciplineandcultureoftribalismasadefiningelementinthe
everyday lives of the people [of SSA] supersedes anything that other
civilizations may believe they have introduced—including Christianity
and Islam...Its workings will remain as much a mystery to most
Westerners as it did during the days of Stanley and Livingstone.”2 In
other words, for this group of discussants, tribe and “tribalism” are an
almost exclusive attribute of SSA. Other discussants do not view tribal
identityasaproblemexclusivetoSSA,suggestingthatithappensallover
the world. They point to North America, Europe, and other parts of the
world asbeing equallyplaguedby “ethnic” conflicts.
1 INTRODUCTION 3
The second issue raised by the internet discussants is the origin and
cause of tribal identity. Whereas the author of the BBC News piece
acknowledges the role played by colonialism in fostering tribal identity,
without unduly accentuating it, other discussants highlight such a role.
According to one of them, “The artificial boundaries brought about by
colonialists in the 1950s, 1960s, and 1970s confined different commu-
nitiesindefiniteregions.Thedemarcationcreatedanotionthatifyouare
notfrom mytribethen youaremy enemy.”3
Anecdotalastheymaybe,theseinternet-baseddiscussionsraiseserious
questions about the nature and origin of tribal identity in SSA. Is tribal
identity an exclusive attribute of SSA, an intrinsic part of African culture,
orisitaninventionofcolonialrule?Andifitisaculturalandcivilizational
attribute and does not “happen all over the world,” should it not be
referred to differently from the way tribal identity is referred to in other
regionsoftheworld?Ontheotherhand,ifitisnotexclusivetoSSA,but
happens all over the world, why should it not be referred to in the same
wayasitisinotherregions?Thesequestionspointtoandechothedebate
thathastakenplaceinAfricanstudieson“ethnicity”sincethe1970s.The
debate has been about the two issues of the nature and origin of tribal
identityin SSAthat arebeingraised todayininternet discussions.
Withrespecttothefirstissue—thenatureoftribalidentity—thedebate
revolves around the terms “tribe” and “ethnicity.” Those scholars who,
like some of the internet discussants, believe that tribal identity is not
exclusive toSSA maintainthat“tribe” shouldbe replaced by “ethnicity.”
They argue that, just as the party organizations and politicians of nine-
teenth and twentieth century America fostered Irish-American, Italian-
American, Jewish-American, and, later, Black American ethnic identities,
so, too, “ethnic,” and not “tribal,” identities have formed in Africa.
“Tribe” and “tribalism” are, thus, denigrating inventions of the West
that need to be rejected.4 Under the influence and authority of these
scholars, the concept of “tribe” in African studies has been replaced by
the conceptof“ethnicity”.
Asfortheoriginandcauseofthis“ethnicidentity”—thesecondissue—
these scholars trace it to colonialism. It is now taken for granted that
“ethnicity” in SSA was fostered by the colonial state. Daniel Posner goes
sofarastoproclaimthatthispaternityofthecolonialstateisnowasettled
debate.5
Thedebateraisestwocorequestions.IsthepopulationofSSAmadeup
of “ethnicities” rather than “tribes”? And does colonial rule explain the