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An Analysis of the
Foundations of Morality
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Mohammad A. Shomali
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Philosophical Series
‘The importance of the book lies firstly in the fact that the various kinds of ethical relativism are
clearly distinguished; and secondly, the two authors singled out for special discussion, Harman
and Wong, present the most up-to-date and plausible versions of relativism. A skilful analysis of
the types of ethical relativism and a critique of the two best versions is clearly something to be
warmly welcomed. I recommend it for the serious attention of anyone interested in
philosophical ethics.’
A. Harry Lesser, Chairperson of the Centre of Philosophy, The University of Manchester
‘The book provides an excellent overview of current and recent thinking on ethical relativism.
The author’s arguments against relativism are worthy of serious consideration.’
Prof. Robert L. Arrington, Department of Philosophy, Georgia State University
‘An impressively detailed and up-to-date analysis of the entire field of ethical relativism, as well
as two of its major contemporary exponents, along with a sure-handed and balanced critique.’
Prof. George F. McLean, Director, The Centre for the Study of Culture
and Values, The Catholic University of America
Today the issue of relativism is not only an academic subject, it has become a vital concern in
sociology and politics, along with the issue of globalization.
This book studies ethical relativism in its most profound and recent forms, and argues that
a non-relativist account of morality is capable of validating our moral experiences without
undesirable implications.
The author demonstrates that, unlike during the late nineteenth and early twentieth
centuries, support for ethical relativism is now in decline. He proposes that the most promising
strategy is first to settle the issue of the foundations of morality, and then to develop a new theory
of morality based on self-love, moral ideals and the process of decision-making.
Ethical Relativism brings a fresh perspective to the on-going debate on post-modernism and
relativism, and should be of interest to all who study philosophy, theology and cultural studies,
and those interested in spirituality.
Mohammad Ali Shomali was born in Iran in 1965. He is a graduate of the seminary of Qum and
has an MA in western philosophy from the University of Tehran. He earned his doctorate in
philosophy from the University of Manchester. His publications include Self-Knowledge
(1996). He currently teaches ethics and philosophy at the Islamic College for Advanced Studies,
London.
ISBN 1-904063-00-4
ISBN 1904063 00 4
Islamic College for
Advanced Studies Press
133 High Road,Willesden
9 781904 u63001 London NW 10 2SW
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1
ETHICAL RELATIVISM
The Islamic College for Advanced Studies
The Islamic College for Advanced Studies (ICAS)
is an educational and research institute offering
undergraduate and graduate courses in Islamic
Studies. The courses cover the Qur’anic Sciences,
in particular, Qur’anic Hermeneutics, Hadith
Studies, Islamic Law and Jurisprudence, Islamic
Theology, Philosophy and Mysticism, Contemp
orary Islam and Arabic.
The Department of Research and Publications at the
College undertakes the preparation and publishing
of textbooks, as well as the translation of classic
and contemporary Islamic works into English. A
number of important compilations and translations
are currently in progress.
This work by Dr Shomali provides an overview of
ethical relativism, along with a critical study of the
writings of philosophers Gilbert Harman and David
Wong. Though purely philosophical, the arguments
developed here, especially those relating to the
foundations of morality, will certainly be of
significance to those interested in Islamic Studies,
and particularly, Islamic Ethics.
ICAS hopes that this book will prove an invaluable
addition to this field of study.
ICAS Press
1
Mohammad A. Shomali
ETHICAL RELATIVISM
An Analysis of the Foundations of Morality
Preface by
A. Harry Lesser
Islamic College for Advanced Studies Press
6 | Contents
b. Universal prescriptivism 94
7. The subjectivist approach 97
a. Simple subjectivist theory 97
b. The error theory 98
8. Existentialism 100
9. Situation ethics 101
10. Social construction of "good” and “bad” 102
11. Inference to the best explanation of moral fundamental 104
differences
Normative relativism 108
Ethical absolutism and diversity of morals 114
4. GILBERT HARMAN AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM 129
Introduction 129
Moral relativism, moral absolutism and moral nihilism 131
Moral relativism as a logical thesis 131
Moral relativism as similar to physical relativism 134
Features of Harman’s theory of ethical relativism 138
Moral frameworks 138
Evaluative relativity: “good for” 141
Relativism and moral language 141
The extent of ethical relativism; moral ought versus evaluative 143
ought
Constraints of ethical relativism: intuitive orrational? 144
Argument for moral relativism 144
Argument from diversity 145
Moral conventionalism 147
Argument for moral conventionalism 149
Implicit and actual agreement 151
The social custom theory 152
The externality requirement 154
The motivation requirement 157
General comments 159
5. DAVID WONG AND ETHICAL RELATIVISM 175
Introduction 175
Three kinds of incommensurability 176
Objectivity or subjectivity? 178
Inference to the best explanation 181
Fundamentally different moralities 182
The formulation of rules 185
Criteria for an adequate moral system 186
An analysis of the moral “A ought to do X” 188
I
Contents | 7
An analysis of “X is a good Y” statement 190
Moral truth 191
General comments 193
6. FOUNDATIONS OF MORALITY 201
Morals and customs 201
Introduction 201
An analysis of customs 201
An analysis of morals 203
Morality and self-love 206
Decision-making 210
Conception and assessment 210
Motivation 212
Different types of desires and pleasures 214
Different factors bearing on moral judgement 222
An analysis of moral concepts 227
Relativism and absolutism 228
Characteristics of a true moral ideal 231
Conclusion 237
Bibliography- 245
Index of Concepts 251
Index of Names 254
Preface
There are two reasons why I have particular pleasure in writing a preface to
Dr Shomali’s book. The first is that, as the supervisor of the PhD thesis on
which it is based, I have seen the growth and development of what is now an
excellently argued and important contribution to contemporary ethical
debate. The quality of the argument is something that the readers will be able
to judge for themselves. The importance of the book lies firstly in the fact that
the various kinds of ethical relativism are clearly distinguished, together with
the arguments for and against them, so that they can be properly assessed.
Secondly, the two authors singled out for special discussion, Harman and
Wong, are the authors who present the most up-to-date and plausible versions
of relativism, versions which avoid many of the objections that can be levelled
at older presentations of a relativist theory. A skilful analysis of the types of
ethical relativism and a critique of the two best versions is clearly something
to be warmly welcomed. But I have another reason for welcoming this work.
This is that, since I believe relativism to be a misguided ethical position, it is
good to see the appearance of a work that argues against the relativist position
in its most plausible form, and moreover does so, in my opinion,
convincingly and conclusively - though that, as I have said, is for readers to
judge for themselves.
But the main purpose of this introduction is to explain briefly the
developments in philosophical ethics of which this book is part. Philosophical
ethics in the English-speaking world may be divided, like mathematics, into
“pure” and “applied”. For most of the history of philosophy, these have been
combined in the study of ethics, which has tried to understand the nature of
morality, less for its own sake than in order that we may actually improve
ourselves and our behaviour: thus Aristotle classifies ethics as practical, not
theoretical, knowledge. But for much of the twentieth century ethics became
a theoretical study of the nature of moral judgements and moral statements;
the guiding of behaviour was seen as vitally important but not something to
