Table Of ContentEssential Oils as
Antimicrobial Agents
in Food Preservation
Perishable products such as fruits and vegetables account for the largest proportion
of food loss due to their short shelf life, especially in the absence of proper storage
facilities, which requires sustainable, universal, and convenient preservation
technology.
The existing methods to prolong the shelf life of food mainly include adding
preservatives, irradiation, cold storage, heat treatment, and controlled atmosphere
storage. But with disadvantages in irradiation, cold storage, heat treatment, and
controlled atmosphere storage, chemical synthetic preservatives . are still the main
means to control food corruption.
As the food industry responds to the increasing consumer demand for green,
safe, and sustainable products, it is reformulating new products to replace
chemical synthetic food additives. Essential Oils as Antimicrobial Agents in Food
Preservation provides a comprehensive introduction to the antimicrobial activity of
plant essential oils and their application strategies in food preservation. It is aimed
at food microbiology experts, food preservation experts, food safety experts, food
technicians, and students.
Features:
• Summarizes the application strategy and safety of essential oil in the field of
food preservation
• Describes the synergistic antibacterial effect of essential oil and antimicrobial
agents
• Explains the action mechanism of essential oil as antimicrobial agent against
foodborne fungi, foodborne bacteria, viruses, and insects
• Analyzes the antimicrobial activity of essential oil in gas phase
The book discusses how as a natural antimicrobial and antioxidant, essential oil has
great potential to be used in the food industry to combat the growth of foodborne
pathogens and spoilage microorganisms. But because the essential oil itself has
obvious smell and is sensitive to light and heat, it cannot be directly added to the
food matrix and thus the application strategies presented in this book explain how to
alleviate those issues.
Essential Oils as
Antimicrobial Agents in
Food Preservation
Jian Ju
First edition published 2023
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487–2742
and by CRC Press
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CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
© 2023 Jian Ju
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ISBN: 978-1-032-34874-2 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-032-35904-5 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-32926-8 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/9781003329268
Typeset in Times
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
Contents
Preface ..................................................................................................................... xiii
About the Author. ..................................................................................................... xv
Chapter 1 Application of Plant Essential Oils in Different Fields ........................ 1
1.1 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Food Industry.................. 1
1.2 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Fish Culture .................... 4
1.3 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Livestock
and Poultry Breeding ................................................................. 5
1.4 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Pesticide Industry ........... 5
1.5 Application of Plant Essential Oil in Cosmetic Industry ........... 6
1.6 Application of Plant Essential Oils in Medicine ....................... 7
1.7 Concluding Remarks ................................................................. 8
References ............................................................................................ 8
Chapter 2 The Inhibitory Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils on
Foodborne Bacteria ............................................................................ 13
2.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 13
2.2 Sources and Extraction Methods of Common
Essential Oils ........................................................................... 14
2.3 The Main Chemical Components of Essential Oils ................ 14
2.4 Relationship Between Chemical Constituents and
Antibacterial Activities of Essential Oils ................................. 17
2.5 Main Evaluation Methods of Essential Oils
Antibacterial Effect .................................................................. 17
2.5.1 Disc Diffusion Method .............................................. 18
2.5.2 Dilution Method ........................................................ 18
2.5.3 Time Sterilization ...................................................... 19
2.5.4 Checkerboard Test ..................................................... 19
2.6 Inhibitory Effect of Essential Oils on Foodborne
Pathogenic Bacteria ................................................................. 20
2.7 Antibacterial Mechanism ......................................................... 20
2.7.1 Damage Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Wall ............ 20
2.7.2 Damage Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Membrane ..... 23
2.7.2.1 Effect of Essential Oil on Protein
in Cell Membrane ..................................... 23
2.7.2.2 Effect of Essential Oil on Fatty
Acids in Cell Membrane........................... 24
2.7.3 Effect of Essential Oil on Energy Metabolism .......... 25
2.7.4 Effect of Essential Oil on Genetic Material .............. 25
2.7.5 Effect of Essential Oil on Cell Morphology.............. 26
2.7.6 Effect on Exercise Ability and Biofilm Formation ....... 27
v
vi Contents
2.7.7 Effect on Quorum Sensing ........................................ 27
2.7.8 Effect of Essential Oil on Bacterial Toxins ............... 29
2.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 29
References .......................................................................................... 31
Chapter 3 The Inhibitory Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils
on Foodborne Fungi ........................................................................... 39
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 39
3.2 Main Factors Affecting the Yield and Chemical
Composition of Essential Oil ................................................... 40
3.2.1 Harvest Time of Plants .............................................. 40
3.2.2 Geographical Position ............................................... 41
3.2.3 Weather Conditions ................................................... 41
3.2.4 Extraction Method ..................................................... 41
3.2.5 Drying Conditions ..................................................... 42
3.2.6 Distillation Time........................................................ 42
3.3 Common Experimental Methods for Evaluating
Antimicrobials Mechanism ..................................................... 43
3.3.1 Permeability of Cell Membrane ................................ 43
3.3.2 Integrity of Cell Membrane ....................................... 45
3.3.3 Release of Cellular Components ............................... 45
3.4 Antifungal Activity of Essential Oils ....................................... 46
3.4.1 Effect on the Cell Wall and Cell Membrane ............. 46
3.4.2 Effect on Nucleic Acids and Proteins ........................ 50
3.4.3 Effect on Mitochondria ............................................. 51
3.4.4 Effect on Membrane Pumps ...................................... 52
3.4.5 Effect on ROS Production ......................................... 53
3.4.6 Effect of Mycotoxins ................................................. 54
3.4.7 Effect on Biofilms ..................................................... 54
3.5 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 56
References .......................................................................................... 57
Chapter 4 Essential Oils in Vapor Phase as Antimicrobial Agents ..................... 69
4.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 69
4.2 Chemical Composition of Essential Oils ................................. 69
4.2.1 Phenols ...................................................................... 71
4.2.2 Terpenoids ................................................................. 71
4.3 Detection Methods of Volatile Compounds in Essential Oils ....72
4.4 Interaction Between Essential Oils and Their Components .... 72
4.5 Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils in Vapor Phase ......... 74
4.6 Evaluation of the Antimicrobial Activity of Essential
Oils in Vapor Phase .................................................................. 74
4.6.1 Inverted Petri Dish Method ....................................... 75
4.6.2 Boxes of Different Materials to Create the
Volatile Space of Essential Oils ................................ 75
Contents vii
4.6.3 Agar Plug Method ..................................................... 75
4.6.4 Other Methods ........................................................... 75
4.7 Potential Applications of Essential Oils in Vapor Phase ......... 76
4.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 78
References .......................................................................................... 78
Chapter 5 Synergistic Antibacterial Effect of Essential Oils and
Antibacterial Agent............................................................................. 87
5.1 Introduction ............................................................................. 87
5.2 Factors Affecting the Antimicrobial Activity of Essential Oils ....88
5.2.1 Microorganisms ......................................................... 88
5.2.1.1 Species of Microorganism ........................ 88
5.2.1.2 Number of Microorganisms ..................... 88
5.2.1.3 Stress Response of Microorganisms ......... 89
5.2.2 Dispersants and Emulsifiers ...................................... 89
5.2.3 Cultivation Conditions .............................................. 89
5.2.3.1 Time .......................................................... 89
5.2.3.2 Temperature .............................................. 90
5.2.3.3 Oxygen Content ........................................ 90
5.2.3.4 Acidity and Alkalinity .............................. 90
5.3 Methods for Evaluating the Synergistic Effect of Drugs ......... 90
5.4 The Interaction Between Essential Oils and Its Active
Components ............................................................................. 92
5.5 Combined Application of Essential Oils and
Antimicrobial Agents ............................................................... 93
5.5.1 The Main Causes of Bacterial Drug Resistance ........ 93
5.5.2 The Potential of Combined Essential Oils
and Food Additives .................................................... 93
5.5.3 The Potential of Combined Essential Oils
and Antibiotics .......................................................... 94
5.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................... 95
References .......................................................................................... 96
Chapter 6 Antioxidant Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils ................... 103
6.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 103
6.2 Oxidative Stress ..................................................................... 104
6.2.1 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Protein ...................... 104
6.2.2 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Lipids ....................... 104
6.2.3 Effect of Oxidative Stress on Genetic Material ....... 104
6.3 Free Radicals ......................................................................... 105
6.4 Antioxidant System ............................................................... 106
6.5 Antioxidative Components in Essential Oils ......................... 106
6.6 Antioxidant Mechanism of Essential Oils ............................. 108
6.6.1 Direct Antioxidant Effect ........................................ 108
6.6.1.1 Free Radical Scavenging ........................ 108
viii Contents
6.6.1.2 Chelation With Metal Ions ..................... 109
6.6.2 Indirect Antioxidant Effect ...................................... 110
6.6.2.1 Inhibit Lipid Peroxidation ...................... 110
6.6.2.2 Regulate the Level of Antioxidant
Enzymes ................................................. 111
6.7 Factors Affecting the Antioxidant Activity
of Essential Oils ..................................................................... 111
6.7.1 Solubility ................................................................. 112
6.7.2 Extraction Method ................................................... 112
6.7.3 Initiator of Oxidation............................................... 113
6.7.4 Receptor Type ......................................................... 113
6.7.5 Storage Condition.................................................... 113
6.8 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 113
References ........................................................................................ 114
Chapter 7 Antiviral Activity and Mechanism of Essential Oils ........................ 121
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 121
7.2 An Overview of Viruses......................................................... 122
7.3 Plant Essential Oils With Antiviral Activity and Their
Active Components ............................................................... 123
7.4 SARS-CoV-2 Entering the Airway ........................................ 124
7.5 The Main Antiviral Pathway and Mechanism of Essential
Oil and Its Active Components .............................................. 126
7.5.1 The Main Antiviral Ways of Essential Oils and
Their Active Components ........................................ 126
7.5.2 Antiviral Mechanism of Essential Oil and Its
Active Components ................................................. 127
7.6 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 129
References ........................................................................................ 129
Chapter 8 The Repellent or Insecticidal Effect of Essential Oils Against
Insects and Its Mechanism ............................................................... 135
8.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 135
8.2 Active Components in Plant Essential Oils That Have
Insecticidal or Insecticidal Effects ......................................... 136
8.2.1 Terpene Compound ................................................. 137
8.2.2 Phenolic Compounds .............................................. 138
8.2.3 Alkaloid ................................................................... 139
8.3 Inhibitory Effect of Plant Essential Oils on the
Reproductive Ability of Insect Pests...................................... 139
8.4 Repellent or Insecticidal Activity of Plant
Essential Oils ......................................................................... 139
8.5 Insecticidal Mechanism of Plant Essential Oils .................... 140
8.6 Development of Resistance to Plant Essential Oils
or Phytochemicals ................................................................. 141
Contents ix
8.7 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 142
References ........................................................................................ 143
Chapter 9 Preparation Strategy and Application of Porous Starch
Microcapsule and Cyclodextrin Containing Essential Oils .............. 147
9.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 147
9.2 The Concept and Development of Microencapsulation ........ 147
9.3 Wall and Core Materials of Microcapsules ........................... 148
9.3.1 Wall Materials ......................................................... 148
9.3.2 Core Materials ......................................................... 149
9.4 Application of Microencapsulation Technology in
Food Industry ......................................................................... 149
9.5 Modified Starch ..................................................................... 150
9.6 Structural Characteristics and Properties of Porous
Starch ..................................................................................... 150
9.7 Preparation of Microencapsulated Porous Starch .................. 152
9.8 Binding Characteristics of Essential Oils–Starch
Microcapsules ........................................................................ 152
9.9 Preparation of Essential Oils–Starch Microcapsules ............. 153
9.10 Action Mechanism ................................................................. 158
9.11 Application of Essential Oils–Starch Microcapsules
in Food Preservation .............................................................. 162
9.12 Application of the Combination of Cyclodextrin
and Essential Oils in Food Preservation ................................ 163
9.13 Concluding Remarks ............................................................. 165
References ........................................................................................ 165
Chapter 10 Preparation Strategy and Application of Edible Coating
Containing Essential Oils ................................................................. 171
10.1 Introduction ........................................................................... 171
10.2 The Concept and Development of Edible Coatings .............. 171
10.3 Requirements for the Use of Edible Coating Materials ......... 172
10.4 Materials Used for Essential Oils–Edible Coatings .............. 172
10.4.1 Polysaccharide-Based Coatings .............................. 176
10.4.2 Protein-Based Coatings ........................................... 177
10.4.3 Lipid-Based Coatings .............................................. 178
10.4.4 Composite Coatings ................................................ 178
10.5 Definition and Production Method of Coating ...................... 179
10.5.1 Definition of Essential Oils–Edible Coating ........... 179
10.5.2 Production Method of Coating ................................ 179
10.5.2.1 Dipping Method ..................................... 179
10.5.2.2 Spraying Method .................................... 180
10.5.2.3 Spreading Method .................................. 181
10.5.2.4 Thin Film Hydration Method ................. 181
10.6 Mechanisms of Food Protection ............................................ 182
