Essential Oil-Bearing Grasses: The genus Cymbopogon (Medicinal and Aromatic Plants - Industrial Profiles 46)

264 Pages·2009·5.62 MB·English

by  Anand Akhila

Essential Oil- 
Bearing Grasses
The genus Cymbopogon
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles
Individual volumes in this series provide both industry and academia with in-depth coverage of
one major genus of industrial importance.
Series Edited by Dr. Roland Hardman
Volume 1 Volume 16
Valerian, edited by Peter J. Houghton Mistletoe, edited by Arndt Büssing
Volume 2 Volume 17
Perilla, edited by He-ci Yu, Tea, edited by Yong-su Zhen
Kenichi Kosuna, and Megumi Haga Volume 18
Volume 3 Artemisia, edited by Colin W. Wright
Poppy, edited by Jenö Bernáth Volume 19
Volume 4 Stevia, edited by A. Douglas Kinghorn
Cannabis, edited by David T. Brown Volume 20
Volume 5 Vetiveria, edited by Massimo Maffei
Neem, edited by H.S. Puri Volume 21
Volume 6 Narcissus and Daffodil, edited by
Ergot, edited by Vladimír Krˇen and Gordon R. Hanks
Ladislav Cvak Volume 22
Volume 7 Eucalyptus, edited by
Caraway, edited by Éva Németh John J.W. Coppen
Volume 8 Volume 23
Saffron, edited by Moshe Negbi Pueraria, edited by Wing Ming Keung
Volume 9 Volume 24
Tea Tree, edited by Ian Southwell and Thyme, edited by E. Stahl-Biskup and
Robert Lowe F. Sáez
Volume 10 Volume 25
Basil, edited by Raimo Hiltunen and Oregano, edited by Spiridon E. Kintzios
Yvonne Holm Volume 26
Volume 11 Citrus, edited by Giovanni Dugo and
Fenugreek, edited by Angelo Di Giacomo
Georgios Petropoulos Volume 27
Volume 12 Geranium and Pelargonium, edited by
Ginkgo biloba, edited by Maria Lis-Balchin
Teris A. Van Beek Volume 28
Volume 13 Magnolia, edited by Satyajit D. Sarker
Black Pepper, edited by P.N. Ravindran and Yuji Maruyama
Volume 14 Volume 29
Sage, edited by Spiridon E. Kintzios Lavender, edited by Maria Lis-Balchin
Volume 15 Volume 30
Ginseng, edited by W.E. Court Cardamom, edited by P.N. Ravindran
Volume 31 Volume 44
Hypericum, edited by Edzard Ernst Mint, edited by Brian M. Lawrence
Volume 32 Volume 45
Taxus, edited by H. Itokawa and
Turmeric, edited by P. N. Ravindran,
K.H. Lee
K. Nirmal Babu, and K. Sivaraman
Volume 33
Capsicum, edited by Amit Krish De
Volume 34
Flax, edited by Alister Muir and
Niel Westcott
Volume 35
Urtica, edited by Gulsel Kavalali
Volume 36
Cinnamon and Cassia, edited by
P.N. Ravindran, K. Nirmal Babu, and
M. Shylaja
Volume 37
Kava, edited by Yadhu N. Singh
Volume 38
Aloes, edited by Tom Reynolds
Volume 39
Echinacea, edited by
Sandra Carol Miller
Assistant Editor: He-ci Yu
Volume 40
Illicium, Pimpinella and Foeniculum,
edited by Manuel Miró Jodral
Volume 41
Ginger, edited by P.N. Ravindran
and K. Nirmal Babu
Volume 42
Chamomile: Industrial Profiles,
edited by Rolf Franke and
Heinz Schilcher
Volume 43
Pomegranates: Ancient Roots to Modern
Medicine, edited by Navindra P.
Seeram, Risa N. Schulman, and
David Heber

Essential Oil- 
Bearing Grasses
The genus Cymbopogon
Edited by Anand Akhila
Medicinal and Aromatic Plants — Industrial Profiles
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Essential oil-bearing grasses : the genus Cymbopogon / editor: Anand Akhila.
p. cm. -- (Medicinal and aromatic plants--industrial profiles ; v. 46)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-8493-7857-7 (hardcover : alk. paper)
1.  Cymbopogon. 2. Cymbopogon--Industrial applications. 3. Cymbopogon--Therapeutic use.  I.
Akhila, Anand. II. Title. III. Series: Medicinal and aromatic plants--industrial profiles ; v. 46.
QK495.G74E745 2010
661’.806--dc22 2009024407
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Contents
Preface to the Series ..........................................................................................................................ix
Preface...............................................................................................................................................xi
Author/Editor Page ........................................................................................................................xiii
Contributors .....................................................................................................................................xv
Chapter 1 The Genus Cymbopogon: Botany, Including Anatomy, Physiology,
Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology ..........................................................................1
Cinzia M. Bertea and Massimo E. Maffei
Chapter 2 Chemistry and Biogenesis of Essential Oil from the Genus Cymbopogon ...............25
Anand Akhila
Chapter 3 The Cymbopogons: Harvest and Postharvest Management .....................................107
A. K. Pandey
Chapter 4 Biotechnological Studies in Cymbopogons: Current Status and Future Options ....135
Ajay K. Mathur
Chapter 5 The Trade in Commercially Important Cymbopogon Oils ......................................151
Rakesh Tiwari
Chapter 6 In Vitro Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of Some Cymbopogon
Species ......................................................................................................................167
Watcharee Khunkitti
Chapter 7 Thrombolysis-Accelerating Activity of Essential Oils .............................................185
Hiroyuki Sumi and Chieko Yatagai
Chapter 8 Analytical Methods for Cymbopogon Oils ..............................................................195
Ange Bighelli and Joseph Casanova
Chapter 9 Citral from Lemongrass and Other Natural Sources: Its Toxicology
and Legislation .........................................................................................................223
David A. Moyler
Index ..............................................................................................................................................239
vii

Preface to the Series
There is increasing interest in industry, academia, and the health sciences in medicinal and aromatic
plants. In passing from plant production to the eventual product used by the public, many sciences
are involved. This series brings together information that is currently scattered through an ever-
increasing number of journals. Each volume gives an in-depth look at one plant genus about which
an area specialist has assembled information ranging from the production of the plant to market
trends and quality control.
Many industries are involved, such as forestry, agriculture, chemical, food, flavor, beverage,
pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and fragrance. The plant raw materials are roots, rhizomes, bulbs,
leaves, stems, barks, wood, flowers, fruits, and seeds. These yield gums, resins, essential (volatile)
oils, fixed oils, waxes, juices, extracts, and spices for medicinal and aromatic purposes. All these
commodities are traded worldwide. A dealer’s market report for an item may say “drought in the
country of origin has forced up prices.”
Natural products do not mean safe products, and account of this has to be taken by the above
industries, which are subject to regulation. For example, a number of plants that are approved for
use in medicine must not be used in cosmetic products.
The assessment of “safe to use” starts with the harvested plant material, which has to comply
with an official monograph. This may require absence of, or prescribed limits of, radioactive mate-
rial, heavy metals, aflatoxin, pesticide residue, as well as the required level of active principle. This
analytical control is costly and tends to exclude small batches of plant material. Large-scale, con-
tracted, mechanized cultivation with designated seed or plantlets is now preferable.
Today, plant selection is not only for the yield of active principle, but for the plant’s ability to
overcome disease, climatic stress, and the hazards caused by mankind. Such methods as in vitro
fertilization, meristem cultures, and somatic embryogenesis are used. The transfer of sections of
DNA is giving rise to controversy in the case of some end uses of the plant material.
Some suppliers of plant raw material are now able to certify that they are supplying organically
farmed medicinal plants, herbs, and spices. The Economic Union directive CVO/EU No. 2092/91
details the specifications for the obligatory quality controls to be carried out at all stages of produc-
tion and processing of organic products.
Fascinating plant folklore and ethnopharmacology lead to medicinal potential. Examples are
the muscle relaxants based on the arrow poison curare from species of Chondrodendron, and the
antimalarials derived from species of Cinchona and Artemisia. The methods of detection of phar-
macological activity have become increasingly reliable and specific, frequently involving enzymes
in bioassays and avoiding the use of laboratory animals. By using bioassay-linked fractionation of
crude plant juices or extracts, compounds can be specifically targeted which, for example, inhibit
blood platelet aggregation, or have antitumor, antiviral, or any other required activity. With the assis-
tance of robotic devices, all the members of a genus may be readily screened. However, the plant
material must be fully authenticated by a specialist.
The medicinal traditions of ancient civilizations such as those of China and India have a large
armamentarium of plants in their pharmacopoeias that are used throughout Southeast Asia. A simi-
lar situation exists in Africa and South America. Thus, a very high percentage of the world’s popula-
tion relies on medicinal and aromatic plants for their medicine. Western medicine is also responding.
Already in Germany all medical practitioners have to pass an examination in phytotherapy before
being allowed to practice. It is noticeable that medical, pharmacy, and health-related schools
throughout Europe and the United States are increasingly offering training in phytotherapy.
ix