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ARCHAEOLOGY,
ETHNOLOGY
& ANTHROPOLOGY
OF EURASIA
Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114
E-mail: [email protected]
107
ETHNOLOGY
V.A. Burnakov
Institute of Archaeology and Ethnography, Siberian Branch, Russian Academy of Sciences,
Akademika Lavrentieva 17, Novosibirsk, 630090, Russia
E-mail: [email protected]
ERLIK KHAN IN THE TRADITIONAL WORLDVIEW
OF THE KHAKAS*
The article reviews the complex of myths and rituals associated with Erlik Khan – one of the main (cid:191) gures of the Khakas
pantheon. The review is based on archival and literary data. The article shows the connection between Erlik Khan and
the ancestral cult and the subsequent transformation of the deity analyzing its semiotic and functional aspects.
Keywords: Erlik Khan, spirits, the world of the dead, ancestor cult, ritual, shamanism.
Research into the religious beliefs of the peoples living in Issues concerning research
Southern Siberia and Central Asia can hardly fail to focus and interpretation of the image
on Erlik Khan, a central religious (cid:191) gure for Turkic and
Mongolian peoples. A signi(cid:191) cant volume of historical and In many ethnographic studies on the worldview of the
ethnographic literature is dedicated to Erlik Khan (Katanov, Khakas people, Erlik Khan is portrayed in a fragmentary
1907; Anokhin, 1924; Alekseyev, 1984; Neklyudov, 1988; and sometimes contradictory manner. This is partly due
Traditsionnoye mirovozzreniye..., 1988; Potapov, 1991; to the fact that in the 19th–20th centuries, researchers
Butanaev, 2006). Unfortunately however, this colorful recorded Khakas views on Erlik Khan (as well as Khakas
(cid:191) gure has been little researched within the context of the religious and mythological beliefs as a whole), which in
myths and rituals of the Khakas. Nonetheless, information the past have been signi(cid:191) cantly in(cid:192) uenced by Buddhism,
concerning Erlik Khan can be found in individual studies Manichaeism, and Christianity. Many of the pre-
on the spiritual culture of the Khakas people. revolutionary authors highlighted certain aspects of Erlik
Khan, ignoring or deliberately “blurring” other aspects
which contradicted their conceptual approach.
*This study is part of the Project “Comparative Analysis of The ancestors of the Khakas and other peoples of
Basic Spiritual Values in the Cultures of Siberian Peoples in the
Southern Siberia (cid:191) rst came into contact with Buddhism,
Late 19th and Early 21st Century. Assessment of Prospects for
Manichaeism, and Nestorian Christianity in the ancient
Cultural Heritage Preservation and Development” from the Basic
Turkic period (Klyashtorny, Sultanov, 2000; Kyzlasov,
Studies Program, Presidium of the Russian Academy of Sciences
1999; Borisenko, Hudiakov, 2005; Butanaev, 2003). In
(No. 1.5.09 or ZN-5-09 “Development of Mechanisms for
Integrating Fundamental Research and Education in Archaeology, this regard, A.M. Sagalaev rightly pointed out that the
Ethnology, and Oriental Studies in the Educational Scienti(cid:191) c complex image of Erlik Khan developed among the
Center of Novosibirsk State University and IAE SB RAS.” Turco-Mongolian peoples from that time onwards (1984:
Copyright © 2011, Siberian Branch of Russian Academy of Sciences, Institute of Archaeology & Ethnography of the Siberian Branch of the Russian
Academy of Sciences. Published by Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.aeae.2011.06.014
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108 V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114
7, 70). Due to limited sources it is dif(cid:191) cult to assess the This approach was applied in the consideration of
intensity of the impact these religions had on the whole fundamental philosophical categories such as “higher
system of myths and rituals of the Khakas ancestry. power,” “good and evil,” “light and dark principles,”
However, there is no doubt that the image of Erlik Khan etc. (Lappo, 1905: 16–17). On the basis of data re(cid:192) ecting
acquired new features while older features were leveled historical, cultural, and mental settings, it is clear
and rethought as a result of lengthy and complex ethnic that many researchers and collectors of folklore often
and cultural interaction. The mythological localization simplified the complex mythological image of Erlik
and the main cult functions of Erlik Khan persisted for a Khan. This resulted in the unconscious although in
long period of time despite these changes. some cases (among Christian missionaries) intentional
The world religions continued to have a powerful endowment of Erlik Khan with the traits of a ruthless
influence on the mythological system of the Altai- “the devil incarnate” (Aleksandrov, 1888: 94–95).
Sayan peoples during later periods (Lappo, 1905: 38; However, with a deeper and more detailed examination
Yakovlev, 1900: 120). By the 18th–19th centuries, local of the traditional worldview of the Khakas, it turns out that
archaic myths and religious practices were considerably the indigenous peoples of the Altai- Sayan region did
enriched as a result of ethnic and cultural interaction not perceive Erlik Khan in such a clear-cut manner. The
between the Southern Siberian peoples, the Mongols Askiz Priest V. Sukhovskoi pointed to the signi(cid:191) cant role
and the Russians, and became closely intertwined of Erlik Khan in the ritual sphere, including fertility rites
with Buddhist and Christian beliefs (Potapov, 1991: (1884: 300). Well-known researcher of Altai shamanism
254–60; Sagalaev, 1984: 8–48; Mikhailov, 1980: 168). A.V. Anokhin “distanced” this image from the evil spirits
Throughout the whole of the 19th century, the Khakas (1924: 6). In the mythological and ritual practice of the
system of myths and rituals continued to be affected Khakas, Erlik Khan is often called Ada(zy) – “father,
by the Orthodox faith. Speci(cid:191) c concepts relating to the protector,” Adam – “my father,” Khara Khan – “black
Khakas worldview were deeply rethought, while the Khan,” Apsakh – “old man,” Khayrakhan – “Master,”
pantheon was further transformed. and when people addressed Erlik Khan, they often
The interest of ethnographical studies in the spiritual used the epithet “good”* (Archives of the Museum of
culture of the indigenous inhabitants of Siberia has been Anthropology and Ethnography RAS. F. 5, Inv. 6, D. 15.
increasing since the middle of the 19th century, when fols. 23–24). People believed that the continuity and well-
the Russian Geographical Society was founded, and a being of the individual and the family, tribe, etc. depended
regular and systematic study of their cultural heritage to a great degree on the “benevolence” of Erlik Khan.
was begun. Yet, in various historical and ethnographic Erlik Khan was revered and “blandished” by all Southern
studies of the time, the interpretation of certain aspects Siberian shamanists regardless of their tribal af(cid:191) liation.
of ethnic culture was far from objective. Understanding The materials of N.P. Dyrenkova, which are consistent
of the beliefs of Siberian peoples was hindered in its with the Khakas materials, show that the Teleut shamans
objectivity as a widespread approach was adopted to the addressed Erlik Khan with the following words:
study of the traditional worldview of indigenous peoples
“... Besides, Khan the father!
which involved interpretation through the prism of the
In response to (my) voice, come,
Christian worldview.
Responding to the call, go down!
Insuf(cid:191) ciently developed ethnographic terminology,
Creating while you rest,
describing speci(cid:191) c aspects of the spiritual culture of
Dashing to life while you rest,
different peoples, including the peoples living in Siberia, The umbilical cord of everyone and everything”
contributed to the “demonization” of Erlik Khan within
(Dyrenkova, 1949: 137).
the Christian perspective. This phenomenon is primarily
re(cid:192) ected in analysis of worldviews, ritual practices and At the same time, in the mythological consciousness
such key concepts as “God” and the “soul.” At the turn of the people, natural disasters were often associated
of the 19th–20th centuries, this problem in Western with the angry actions of Erlik Khan who demanded
European ethnology was clearly highlighted by the a new sacri(cid:191) ce. An ambivalent attitude towards Erlik
famous French explorer L. Lévy-Bruhl. The scholar Khan caused a certain level of awe and mystical fear
criticized the use of the term “soul” (in the Christian of this deity and his closest entourage. The believers
sense) for describing the thinking of primitive peoples, tried not to pronounce his name without necessity out
since “the sense of belonging and oneness” with the of fear of retaliation (Burnakov, 2006: 69, 75). In his
principle of life dissolved in nature, had nothing to do time, the great Turkologist V.V. Radlov pointed out
with “the spiritual visitor of the body” called “soul”
(Lévy-Bruhl, 1999: 73–74). Later, L.P. Potapov voiced *It should be noted that the Turkic people of Southern
a similar criticism of conceptual tools used in studying Siberia, when addressing Erlik Khan, could also use the opposite
the beliefs of the peoples of Siberia (1991: 31). words and expressions (Anokhin, 1924: 1–2).
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V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114 109
that credulity and disposition to superstition among Living side by side with the indigenous inhabitants
the Khakas and the Altaians were important aspects of of Southern Siberia also had an impact on the worldview
their mentality (1989: 172). The fact that information of the Russian population. Many people who learned
concerning Erlik Khan is limited can also be explained the local language and borrowed methods of household
by the reluctance of believers to discuss this topic with management and other livelihood components also
researchers due to a superstitious fear of the deity from adopted aspects of the autochthonous mythological and
the Underworld. According to Prince Nikolai Kostrov ritual complex. This was often expressed in a respectful
who gathered ethnographic materials among the Khakas attitude towards sacred places, in the performance of
in the middle of the 19th century, informants evasively certain ritual actions in those places as well as in the
replied to his questions about Erlik Khan: “Erlik Khan observance of certain hunting rules, regulations, etc.
is so dreadful that is not even possible to portray him” In connection with this, the present author agrees with
(Kostrov, 1852: 62). A.A. Lucidarskaya who claims that mystical rituals
Gathering information on this mythological (cid:191) gure which were brought from the mainland, in the minds of
and its interpretation was hindered by one more the newcomers mingled with elements of indigenous cult
circumstance. It is known that shamans had priority in practice (2007: 127). In the mythological consciousness
mythological and ritualistic “interaction” with Erlik Khan. of the Russians, shamanism was often associated with
Consequently, shamans held most information about serving the “evil principle” and idolatry. In the 19th
this (cid:191) gure. Researchers sometimes found it dif(cid:191) cult to century, the prominent Russian scholar V.V. Radlov
get information directly from shamans. The social and studied the traditional mentality of the Turkic peoples.
psychological protective factor was an important issue. He noted that the desire to maintain good relations with
When shamans communicated with representatives of the powers of darkness through the help of the shamans,
other ethnic and religious communities, as well as with “created the notion among the neighboring Russian
the authorities or simply with strangers, this problem population that the religion of the shamanists was the
was aggravated (Yakovlev, 1900: 115). Throughout the religion of the devil [emphasis added – B.V.]” (Radlov,
19th–20th centuries, shamans were often persecuted: 1989: 366).
before the Revolution by the Orthodox Church, and in Despite their superstitious fears, the Russians often
the Soviet period by the State. For personal safety many resorted to the services of shamans. At the end of the
shamans deliberately avoided talking with researchers 19th century, N.M. Yadrintsev, a known scholar of Siberia
about the subjects mentioned or shared superficial and a public (cid:191) gure, wrote on this occasion: “Shamans
information only. These circumstances in(cid:192) uenced the and their divination impressed Russian Cossacks and
overall information value and, accordingly, the integrity tradesmen; they adopted the faith in the power of shamans
of the image of Erlik Khan in studies of the Khakas and their miraculous power, turning to them in dif(cid:191) cult
worldview and ritual practices. circumstances” (1892: 459). The presence of Russians
at public Khakas sacri(cid:191) ces tajyg became common in the
19th–20th centuries (Klements, 1884; Yakovlev, 1900).
Erlik Khan: In most cases, the appeal of Russians to shamans for
Variety of names and concepts assistance was motivated by a belief in the shaman’s
supernatural powers and hope for the swift resolution of
According to the traditional Khakas worldview, Erlik everyday problems. As opposed to Orthodox Christianity
Khan (Irlik Khan, Ilkhan, Aina Khan, Kirei Khan) was which is based on the texts of the Scripture, local cults were
the ruler of the Underworld. The Russian population based on close interaction with the surrounding natural
living side by side with the Khakas, often referred to the world. In this regard, the observations made by Priest
(cid:191) gure as Shaitan, demon, devil, Satan, impure spirit, etc. N. Orfeyev are very interesting as a clear demonstration of
It should be noted that the beliefs of the Khakas in the the ethnic and cultural processes taking place at the time.
18th–20th centuries were in(cid:192) uenced by so-called popular As the author notes, the mythological consciousness of the
Orthodoxy. It is evident that in adapting to new social and Khakas explained certain natural phenomena as resulting
cultural realities the image of Erlik Khan was endowed from magical manipulations and witchcraft carried out by
with the demonic features of Satan (the devil), borrowed the Russians (Orfeyev, 1886: 43).
from the Christian faith. A.M. Sagalaev pointed to close Further ethnic and cultural interaction between the
contacts between the indigenous shamanist and Russian Khakas and the Russians resulted in the fact that local and
popular Orthodox traditions, which existed in the past borrowed names for “the Lord of the Underworld” were
(1986: 167). D.E. Lappo noted that in the culture of the often used as synonyms. The substitution of concepts
Khakas, “the cult of Kudai [the supreme deity – B.V.] often occurred as well. Many Khakas could not speak
now coexists on the one hand with shamanism, and on perfect Russian and had only a super(cid:191) cial knowledge of
the other, with Orthodoxy” (1905: 42). the Orthodox faith. The principles of Good and Evil in
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110 V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114
shamanism, as it seemed to them, were identical to the transmitted in the form of Erlen (Khakas Irlen). Potanin
Christian concepts of God and Satan. linked this lexical element with the names of certain
At the end of the 19th century, D.K. Klements pointed animals such as the mole and rat. It is well known that
to intense processes of Christianization taking place the habitat of these animals is often located under ground.
among the Khakas living near the Russian population, In support of his argument, G.N. Potanin drew on plots,
and to the transformation of the Khakas worldview. The common to the folklore of the Turkic and the Mongolian
researcher stated that “under the in(cid:192) uence of Christianity, peoples, in which these rodents were directly related to the
old shamanic deities which had formerly been both good “army” of Erlik Khan who was also their immediate ruler
and evil were all moved into the category of evil spirits, (2005: 694). It is worth noting that in the mythological
demons and devils” (Klements, 1884: 9–10). N.F. Katanov views of the Khakas, many animals that live in holes or in
recorded the words and expressions which the Khakas water are endowed with supernatural and sometimes with
borrowed from Russian religious terminology. These were harmful powers. Such animals were perceived by the local
adapted to the speci(cid:191) c features of the Khakas language population as beings connected with Erlik Khan.
and illustrate the processes of cultural interaction that took V.V. Radlov notes interesting information concerning
place in this area. Examples include the following: “Chort – the notion of “Erlik” and recorded the word ‘Erlik’ among
chyort (demon); che, chort – nu, chyort (well, demon); the peoples of Eastern Turkestan in connection with their
kuzuruktyg, mustug chort agylganar – they brought ethnic self-identity (1989: 101). This report is interesting
the devil with tail and horns; chort piler kaidar-kaidar in the sense that some Turkic peoples of Central Asia,
parchangmyn – devil knows where-where I should go” apparently, linked the term “Erlik” with the concept of
(Katanov, 1893: 60); “pochchy – abbreviated ‘fu chert’ “fellow countryman, tribesman” and correlated it with
(ew, demon)” (Katanov, 1907: 379). one’s place of residence. It cannot be ruled out that this
The Khakas often used the word “Satan” (Khakas word could have been reminiscent of the concept of “one’s
saidan) instead of “Erlik Khan” to make the interpretation own land,” “the land of one’s kind (ancestors),” or at least
of their beliefs and traditions more accessible both to its symbolic markers. Some Turkic myths have it that it
simple Russian people and to researchers (Kostrov, 1852: was Erlik Khan who pulled the (cid:191) rst land out of the World
62). Some scholars believe that the Russians originally Ocean, and thereby vindicated his claim to it. In this
borrowed the word “shaitan” from Islam and later used it regard, the authors of the well-known study “Traditional
to denote the “impure spirits” of indigenous ethnic groups Worldview of the Turkic Peoples of Southern Siberia”
(Lvova, 1973: 174). A literary analysis of the Khakas rightly note: “All living things that inhabit the land, the
pandemonium of the time shows that lexical substitution subterranean space, or water, were considered to belong
lead to one and the same (cid:191) gure being disparately denoted to the Underworld” (Traditsionnoye mirovozzreniye…,
as independent (cid:191) gures with correspondingly different 1988: 5). In addition, the land, which had a direct relation
names. Allegedly, they also differed in their specific to the Underworld, represented man’s last retreat.
function (Orfeyev, 1886: 42–43). The connection between Erlik Khan and the earth
Focusing on the etymology of the word “Erlik,” it with its deep layers does not rule out the (cid:191) gure’s original
should be noted that Erlik Khan is (cid:191) rst mentioned in association with the Upper World, the celestial sphere, as
the Orkhon-Yenisei writings. The name of this deity was noted by L.P. Potapov (1991: 255). In the mythology
is conveyed in the form erklig which means “strong, of the Southern Siberian Turkic people, heaven was
powerful” (Malov, 1952: 64). According to the profound considered to be the (cid:191) rst dwelling place of Erlik Khan.
studies of the prominent Turkologist S.G. Klyashtorny, Subsequently, as folklore has it, he was overthrown to
ancient written sources consistently link Erklig with earth, and then to the subterranean realm (Verbitsky,
the Underworld (Klyashtorny, 1981: 125–131). In his 1992: 122–123). The original ornithomorphic appearance
analysis of folklore and ethnographic texts belonging to of Erlik Khan also points to his “past” celestial location.
the peoples of Siberia and Central Asia, S.Yu. Neklyudov In archaic creation myths, Erlik Khan acts as one of the
came to the conclusion that the name of the Lord of the most active demiurges. It was Erlik Khan in the guise
Underworld “goes back to the Old Uigur Erklig kagan of a (cid:192) ying duck, who dived under water and brought up
(“mighty Emperor”) – the epithet of Yama, the Lord of the the silt from which Khudai (the supreme deity) created
Buddhist hell. The name Nomun Khan is the Mongolian the earth. However, Erlik Khan concealed the remaining
calque of Yama’s title – “King of the law,” “the lord of piece of silt in his mouth and then spat it out on the (cid:192) at
faith” (Neklyudov, 1988). surface created by Khudai, which resulted in the creation
The hypothesis set forth by G.N. Potanin, famous of the mountains, hills and swamps. This, according to the
Russian scholar and explorer, also has some foundation. myth, formed the existing landscape of the earth (Katanov,
Potanin identified a semantic series linking the term 1907: 246, 522, 527). Perhaps the demiurge predestined
“Erlik” with the subterranean space and some of its his role as progenitor by creating the necessary conditions
inhabitants. In the Mongolian languages, this word is for human life on his own initiative.
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V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114 111
In the Khakas as well as the Turkic tradition, Erlik element indicates that in mythological consciousness,
Khan is not inferior to the supreme light deity (Khudai, water (cid:192) owing out of the ground, was obviously perceived
Ulgen, Yoyon (Chakhys) as far as his creativity, ingenuity as a substance emanating from the underworld. It is likely
and activity are concerned. Sometimes, Erlik Khan is to carry properties associated with this realm. It was
shown to be even more creative although his activity believed that water was capable both of reviving a person
is still largely associated with a negative principle. and causing their death. In the Khakas tradition notions
Becoming the (cid:191) rst blacksmith, Erlik Khan invented tools of living (myogi sug) and dead, water (chabal sug) also
and created the inhabitants of the Underworld (Verbitsky, existed. A plot in which the hero is revived with myogi
1992: 90). It was believed that Erlik Khan breathed the sug is widespread in folklore (Altyn Aryg, 1987: 123).
soul into man. This myth has long been used by shamans Water which was used to wash the body of a dead person
to justify the fatal dependence of the soul of the deceased was considered dead water. It was believed that coming
on the will of Erlik Khan (Potapov, 1983: 105). into contact with dead water or accidentally stepping in
a place where it had been drained would inevitably cause
illness and later death.
Erlik Khan and the Underworld In the mythological mind, the element of water
connected the Underworld and the Middle World and
As has been mentioned above, in the ancient Turkic often acted as a channel of communication between
language, the word “Erlik” meant “strong.” This word also the two (Traditsionnoye miroviozzreniye…, 1988: 75).
included concepts such as “powerful,” “having authority,” V. Sukhovskoi wrote: “The subsoil spring is a convenient
“ruler,” “lord,” “sovereign,” “master” (Drevnetyurksky way of communicating with a remote spirit” (1884: 297).
slovar…, 1969: 180). All of these meanings indicate the It is not surprising that Erlik Khan was seen as being
high sacred status of Erlik Khan in the mythological and related to the element of water as “living on the sea
ritual realm of the Turkic peoples. shore,” or “sailing in a boat.” Myths often make mention
According to the traditional Khakas worldview, Erlik of servants – erliks, 88 (99) in number*, also living on
Khan lived in the Underworld. This space was variegated the shores of “a black sea” (Katanov, 1893: 27; Anokhin,
and divided into many areas (layers). Erlik Khan lived 1924: 4). In one of his appeals to Erlik Khan, the shaman
under “17 layers of the earth” (Katanov, 1907: 216). would utter the following words: “If there is a place of
A mythological “stratigraphy” of the Underworld was your dwelling, it is in the upper reach of the Little Abakan!
widespread among the peoples of the Sayan and Altai If there is a place of your games, it is on the shore of the
region. For example, some groups of Altaians believed Big Abakan!” (Katanov, 1907: 558). It should be pointed
that “the subterranean kingdom of darkness is made out that in describing the dwelling place of Erlik Khan, the
of nine layers” (Radlov, 1989: 361)*. According to the epithet “covered with hag-weed” is often used. According
beliefs of the Tuvans, “the earth has three layers, beneath to folklore, the horse standing near the house of the
which there are 18 (cid:191) res of hell (tamas), where 18 Erliks Lord of the Underworld was made of this plant (Ibid.:
are considered to be lords. The chief of these lords is 219). Hag-weed is also referred to as yuzyut agazy –
Erlik Khan” (Katanov, 1893: 6). According to the beliefs “the tree of the yuzyuts” – among the Khakas (FMA**).
of the Khakas, the lord of the subterranean kingdom Yuzut was the soul of an “ultimately” dead person, which
lived in a copper palace. The furniture in its interior was has entirely departed to the world of the ancestors.
made of gold. Erlik Khan “was seated in a huge golden Apparently, hag-weed was perceived as an object, related
chair behind a large golden table” (Archives of the to the otherworldly space and directly to Erlik Khan. Such
Khakas National Museum of Regional Studies. Tenishev notions were probably conditioned by its place of growth,
Manuscript, fol. 8). According to other sources, he lived near water basins, which were considered to be entrances
“under a high mountain in a stone house with forty corners to the other world. The Khakas belief that this spirit can
(Katanov, 1907: 248). be located in water is also supported by the materials of
Erlik Khan and his minions could also dwell in water. I. Pestov (1833: 80–81).
It is known that in the traditional culture of the Khakas, In Khakas folklore, Erlik Khan is often portrayed as an
water “sug” was perceived as a substance related to the old man with a spear or a stick with which he can strike
Underworld. It was often endowed with ambivalent all living beings. However, according to shaman stories
properties (Traditsionnoye mirovozzreniye…, 1988: 23; the Lord of the Underworld took the form of a black giant
Burnakov, 2006: 42–52). Interestingly, in the Khakas with thick bushy hair, long beard and horns. “His huge
language, the word “water spring” is translated as “khara
sug” – “black water.” The semantics of this lexical
*According to other versions of myths, the number of Erlik
Khan’s closest servants is seven or nine erliks (Katanov, 1893:
*According to another version, of seven layers (Potapov, 30; 1907: 215, 219–220, 248).
1983: 103). **Field materials of the author.
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112 V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114
red eyes burned with (cid:191) re. His long teeth, strong as steel, Underworld supposedly determined the fate of the dead.
glittered. He had bear claws on his hands and feet. A huge Clearly, these views were formed under the signi(cid:191) cant
tail (cid:191) ve fathoms long stuck out behind him” (Archives of in(cid:192) uence of the world religions and associated ideas
the Khakas National Museum of Region Studies. Tenishev concerning posthumous retribution (Katanov, 1907: 215;
Manuscript, fol. 8). In the mythology of other South Orfeyev, 1886: 43).
Siberian Turkic peoples, the ruler of the Underworld bears The information given above supports
some similarity to this description (Anokhin, 1924: 3). M.S. Usmanova’s suggestion that in Khakas archaic
In the Khakas mythopoetical traditions, the hyperbolic mythological consciousness, Erlik Khan was associated
image of Erlik Khan is saturated with all sorts of with the image of the ancestor (1985: 154). The names
demonic features, clearly retained human traits (a man or of the Lord of the Underworld – Adazy (father, patron),
particularly an old man). At the same time, his activities, Adam (“my father”) support this suggestion. Moreover,
needs, wishes, etc. also became “humanized” (Yakovlev, according to V. Sukhovskoi, material representatives of
1900: 119). In one shamanic invocations, Erlik Khan is the khyj seok referred to Erlik Khan as their ancestor
addressed with the following words: (1884: 298). Linguistic data also support this supposition.
In Turkic languages, the stem Er/Ir is translated as “male,”
Khara argymakha mingen “man” (Sevortyan, 1974: 288). In addition, the custom
Khara albaga ton kisken of devoting sacred horses (yzykhs) to various deities was
Khara chylan khamchy tudyngan
widespread among the Khakas. Many of these deities
Khara kashi chugennig,
were perceived as ancestors. In this regard, N.F. Katanov
Khara uzun sagallyg
noted: “The Tartars, who live along the banks of the
Khuchak chetpes pellig
Abakan, both now and in former times, would select the
Kharysh chetpes khabakhtyg
Erlik khan chakhshy pozyn best horse from the herd and dedicate it to Erlik Khan,
Er aldyna kulep-kel. calling it ‘yzykh’” (Katanov, 1907: 216). In the Khakas
tradition, Erlik Khan is patron of red yzykhs (Katanov,
Riding an argamak, 1893: 29). In the Khakas culture, the red color correlates
Wearing a coat of black sable, with a number of notions. “Blood,” “(cid:191) re,” “kinship,”
With a whip of black snake,
and “life” were some of the most salient of these notions
With a bridle of black straps,
(Burnakov, 2006: 52–66). The rules related to the transfer
With black long beard,
of the yzykh are of some interest. If the owner of a sacred
With a back that you cannot embrace with your arm,
animal died, it passed into the possession of his brother
With forehead longer than a quarter of a fathom,
Kind Erlik Khan, (Katanov, 1907: 291). These customs illustrate the fact
Fly to me, to a man. that the traditional Khakas society had a predominantly
Archives of the Museum patriarchal character. The yzykh was evidently the holy
of Anthropology and Ethnography RAS. object of the family clan, which was directly associated
F. 5. Inv. 6. D. 15, fol. 23v–24. with its ancestor Erlik Khan and passed on to relatives via
the male line. This notion is supported by the etymology
In the traditional worldview of the Turkic peoples, of the terms erlik – “strong,” er – “man.”
space was divided both according to the vertical principle The existence of the relationship between the ruler
(the model of the world tree and the mountains) and of the Underworld and the ancestor cult is con(cid:191) rmed
the horizontal principle (the cardinal directions). The by the fact that according to the Khakas religious and
observations of V.P. Dyakonova are particularly interesting mythological beliefs, Erlik Khan was the main patron of
in this respect. Dyakonova noted a variety of concepts all shamans, many of whom received their consecration
concerning the location of the world of the dead among directly from him. In their prayer invocations, the Khakas
the Turkic peoples of the Altai-Sayan (1975: 49). The kams referred to Erlik Khan as “the lord” as well as
expressed variability of localizing the world of the dead is “the father and creator of the human soul” (Burnakov,
also characteristic for the Khakas tradition (Mainagashev, 2006: 69). It was believed that Erlik Khan gave the
1915: 287; Katanov, 1893: 90). protecting and assisting spirits tyoses, “inherited” from
The Khakas often referred to the world of the dead deceased shamans of the family clan, to a new shaman,
as Yuzyut-khanyn chiri (“the land of Yuzyut Khan”) and determined what kind of tambourine, rattle, etc.
or simply Yuzyut chiri (“the land of the yuzyuts”). to make (Alekseyev, 1984: 58–59; Butanaev, 2006:
According to traditional beliefs, the soul of a deceased 68–69). Similar beliefs are recorded among the Shor
(yuzyut), having moved to the other world was given over people (Potapov, 1947: 164).
to the full power of Erlik Khan, also called Yuzyut Khan. Another fact pointing to the link between Erlik Khan
It was believed that Erlik Khan had a supreme judicial and the ancestor cult concerns the tradition of making
function. By his impartial decision, the Ruler of the tyoses, images of ancestors, which was common in the
Author's personal copy
V.A. Burnakov / Archaeology Ethnology & Anthropology of Eurasia 39/1 (2011) 107–114 113
Khakas culture. N.G. Potanin wrote: “A wooden ongon supreme judicial function. Khakas beliefs surrounding
[tyos – B.V.] can be found among the Kacha Tatars under Erlik Khan developed in line with the general Turkic
the name Irlik Khaan agaste” (Potanin, 2005: 700). tradition, resulting in traces similar to the religious and
A.N. Gladyshevsky, researcher of Khakas shamanism, mythological beliefs of Turkic and Mongolian peoples
mentions that in the past, the Khakas would make Irlik inhabiting adjacent territories.
tyos in the form of a small man with outstretched arms
(1954: 105). It is quite possible that in the materials of
N.F. Katanov, this fetish is marked as a nameless tyos, References
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