Table Of ContentDaughters and Mothers Exercising Together (DAMET):
Effects of Home- and University-Based Interventions on
Physical Activity Behavior and Family Relations
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
ABSTRACT
This study compared two interventions in terms of impact on physical activity participation and mother–daughter
relations. Previously sedentary mothers and daughters (N = 34) were randomly assigned to a 12-week university-
or home-based physical activity group. Program activities were designed using focus group information, aspects of
the social cognitive theory, and information from previously successful interventions. The university-based group
met three times a week for fitness building and recreational activities. The home-based group received a packet of
information and training to perform activities in or near the home. Changes in physical activity and family
bonding were assessed for mothers and daughters separately using a 2 (group)(2 (time) repeated measures analysis
of variance. On completing the program, mothers and daughters in each group reported increased participation in
physical activity (p=.02 to .000). The majority of mothers (94%) and daughters (88%) agreed that “my
relationship with my daughter/mother has improved as a result of participating in physical activity together.” On
the Parental Bonding Instrument daughters reported no statistically significant changes in their perceptions of
“mom’s level of caring” (p=.73); however, “mom’s level of control” (p ≤ .05) increased. Group byTime interactions
were not significant, indicating that there were no differences between results from either program. Both home- and
university-based physical activity programs may be viable paradigms in which to improve family relations and
increase physical activity.
Adolescence is a period of turbulence Services [USDHHS], 1999). Unfortunately, Pasanen, Moynahanen, & Saatela, 1999;
due to insecurities, relationship stress, and adolescent girls are less likely than boys to Kalakanis, Goldfield, Paluch, & Epstein,
self-anxiousness (Rice, 1999). Adolescent engage in vigorous physical activity and,
girls report a greater number of family among all youth, as grade in school in-
Lynda B. Ransdell, PhD, FACSM; Eric Eastep,
problems than boys do, and these problems creases, physical activity participation de-
MS; Alison Taylor, MS; Darcie Oakland, MS;
may be complicated by the fact that during creases (USDHHS, 2000). In the 1997 Youth
Jenny Schmidt, BS; and Barry Shultz, PhD, are
adolescence communication with parents Risk Behavioral Survey, fewer than 54% of
with the Department of Exercise & Sport Sci-
deteriorates. In addition to psychological adolescent girls reported health-enhancing
ence, 250 S. 1850 E., University of Utah, Salt
stressors, adolescent girls are at risk for vigorous activity on at least 3 of the pre-
Lake City, UT 84112-0920; E-mail:
physical inactivity. Regular physical activ- ceding 7 days for at least 20 minutes (Pratt,
[email protected]. Laurie
ity can help individuals maintain a healthy Macera, & Blanton, 1999).
Moyer-Mileur, PhD, is with the Department of
body weight, reduce the chance of develop- Several studies have shown that parents’
Pediatrics, Neonatology, Center for Pediatric
ing Type II (adult onset) diabetes mellitus, activity level has a strong positive relation-
Nutrition Research at the University of Utah.
and it can promote psychological health by ship to their child’s activity level (Alpert,
reducing stress, depression, and anxiety Field, Goldstein, & Perry, 1990; Anderssen This research was supported by a “Faculty Re-
(U.S. Department of Health and Human & Wold, 1992; Fogelholm, Nuutinen, search Grant” from the University of Utah.
American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1 19
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
2001; Reynolds et al., 1990; Zakarian, Hovel, ticipation rates were very low (average after the intervention.
Hofsetter, Sallis, & Keating, 1994). Addition- 28%). Adult physical activity levels, as mea- Ransdell, Dratt, Kennedy, O’Neill, and
ally, prior researchers have demonstrated sured in weekly Metabolic Equivalents DeVoe (2001) used social cognitive theory
that daughters can positively influence their (METS), increased significantly in the ex- (SCT) to design a family-based intervention
mothers’ physical activity levels (Eyler et al., perimental and control groups, but no sig- that allowed mothers to spend quality time
1999; Taylor, Baranowski, & Sallis, 1994). nificant differences were found for psycho- with their daughters while being active and
Family support appears to be an impor- logical variables or cardiovascular fitness learning about physical activity. Although
tant component for increasing physical ac- indicators among any of the participants. physical activity did not increase signifi-
tivity in adolescents and adults. Biddle and Of particular interest in this study is that cantly over time, mothers and daughters
Goudas (1996) found that adolescents’ in- most families who continued to participate experienced significant improvements in
tentions to exercise and their participation were led by mothers who perceived the pro- perceived sport competence, physical con-
in strenuous activity was significantly pre- gram as a means for them to spend quality dition, and strength and muscularity. This
dicted by parent and teacher encourage- time with their children. is important because previous studies have
ment. According to Anderssen and Wold Nader and colleagues (1989) imple- linked high levels of physical self-percep-
(1992), direct parental help in exercising mented a family cardiovascular risk reduc- tion to continued participation in physical
vigorously is the most important determi- tion intervention that focused on reducing activity across the life span (Welk, 1999).
nant of physical activity among adolescent salt and fat intake and increasing physical In addition to using family-based physi-
girls. They also reported that for adolescent activity. The intervention group received 3 cal activity interventions to increase physi-
girls, after friends, support from their moth- months of weekly exercise, education, and cal activity, it is interesting to consider other
ers was the most significant predictor of behavioral management sessions followed psychosocial benefits that might result from
exercise. Field, Diego, and Sanders (2001) by 9 months of maintenance sessions. The such a program. Using qualitative data from
established that for adolescent girls in their control group received no intervention. In- a previous study, we concluded that
study, absence of social support for exercise tervention participants significantly im- mother–daughter relations typically im-
was the most common reason for discon- proved their diets, but physical activity lev- prove when they participate in physical ac-
tinuing exercise. It is likely that if an ado- els showed no significant improvements. tivity together (Ransdell et al., 2001). Inter-
lescent perceives that physical activity is The authors noted that the most powerful estingly, only one other study has examined
important to his or her peers and parents, long-term (e.g., 1 year) behavior changes the possible link between exercise and an
that adolescent will participate in more among Mexican-American families oc- adolescent’s relationships. In a cross-sec-
physical activity than someone whose par- curred when siblings and mothers were in- tional study, Field et al. (2001) questioned
ents and peers are less supportive of physi- volved with the intervention. 89 high school seniors on their exercise hab-
cal activity or more supportive of other Epstein, Valoski, Wing, and McCurley its and relationships with peers and parents.
skills and activities. (1990) recruited families with one obese The “high-exercise group” reported (p ≤ .05)
Given the potential link between parent child (>20% overweight), one obese parent, higher quality relationships and greater in-
and child physical activity, one way to po- and one parent willing to attend treatment timacy with parents and more family sup-
tentially increase the physical activity levels meetings with his or her child. These fami- port as compared to the “low-exercise group.”
of adolescent girls and decrease the psycho- lies were then randomly assigned to one of Given the many potential benefits of a
logical stressors of adolescence is to design three groups: child and parent group that physical activity program in terms of in-
and implement a family-based intervention. reinforced habit and weight change, child creasing physical activity and improving
Several family-based physical activity inter- group that reinforced habit and weight mother–daughter relations, it is important
ventions have been developed, but most change, and nonspecific group that rein- to consider a theoretical background to en-
have had little success at increasing physi- forced attendance. All participants were sure the development and implementation
cal activity. Baronowski and colleagues given information on diet, exercise, and of a successful program. Bandura’s (1986;
(1990) focused on increasing physical ac- behavioral principles, and all were in- 2001) SCT has been applied to numerous
tivity levels in African-American families structed to begin an aerobic exercise pro- family-based interventions, and it is useful
with children in the fifth through seventh gram. Results indicated that the only posi- for explaining the adoption of various
grades. The control group received no in- tive significant changes occurred in the health behaviors (Taylor et al., 1994). SCT
tervention, whereas the intervention group group that targeted both the parent and is an effective means of explaining family
participated in a 14-week program of one child. Compared to children in the group behaviors because in this theory, the envi-
educational and two fitness activities per with their parents, children in the “child ronment, internal personal factors, and be-
week. Due to a number of factors, includ- target” and “nonspecific target” groups were havior act as bidirectional determinants of
ing a hurricane alert and a bomb scare, par- significantly heavier (p ≤ .05) 5 and 10 years each other (Bandura, 1978). If one of these
20 American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
factors changes, the others are more likely search. Twenty mother–daughter pairs tial training sessions and emphasized
to change. When interventions target all (N=40) were recruited for the intervention throughout both programs with activities,
three factors, significant behavior changes using newspaper articles and local girl scout phone calls, and e-mail messages. Some ex-
are more likely to occur. The socialization troop announcements. Both mothers and amples of these activities include the use of
aspect of the SCT shows how a parent’s and daughters were required to be apparently a female only environment (which may be
child’s behavior can act as reciprocal deter- healthy (as defined by the American Col- perceived as more friendly than a co-ed en-
minants and create a cycle of physical ac- lege of Sports Medicine, 2000) and irregu- vironment), the emphasis on our study
tivity promotion. larly active or inactive as defined by their “community,” the promotion of the phi-
Because family relations are often answer to one question on the Behavioral losophy that exercise is fun, the use of rein-
strained during adolescence, it is important Risk Factor Surveillance System (Behavioral forcement for reaching physical activity
to consider ways to decrease stress, increase Risk Factor Surveillance System, 1995). This goals, and the use of positive self-talk to
physical activity, and bring parents closer to question asked about their participation in boost confidence. We also played a game
their adolescent children. One method of physical activity for the 3 months prior to called “Get to Know your Mother/Daugh-
improving family relations that has not been the study. Participants were considered sed- ter,” which included questions about “your
thoroughly examined is the use of physical entary or irregularly active if they engaged daughter’s top goal in life right now,” or
activity interventions. Physical activity inter- in physical activity less than 3 days per week “your mother’s biggest success to date.”
ventions may work to improve mother– during the past 3 months. Participants in the university-based
daughter relations because mothers and Intervention Description group met three times per week and par-
daughters will spend more time than usual One month prior to the start of the in- ticipated in fitness activities twice a week
socializing as they plan the activities, ride to tervention a subset of mothers and daugh- and lifetime activities or sports once a week.
and from the activities, and exercise together. ters (N=16) was selected and asked to par- Table 1 presents the university-based physi-
They could also develop a sense of camara- ticipate in a 2-hour focus group session. cal activity schedule. Fitness activity days
derie as a result of hard work and setting and During this session participants were asked typically consisted of a 5-minute warm-up,
reaching physical activity goals together. to discuss the types of activities in which 30 minutes of aerobic activity, 30 minutes
Lastly, succeeding with an exercise program they wanted to participate and desired of weight training, and 5–10 minutes of
may lead to increased self-esteem, which can meeting times and dates. They were also stretching and abdominal exercises. Life-
have a significant positive effect on one’s re- asked to review the home-based participant time activities included cross-country ski-
lations with others. manual and provide feedback regarding ing, indoor rock climbing, and hiking.
The purpose of this study was to deter- ease of use and quality of recommended Sports consisted of basketball, soccer, and
mine how effective home- and university- activities. Intervention activities were volleyball. To track program compliance, at-
based interventions were at facilitating in- planned using feedback from the focus tendance of the university-based group was
creased physical activity participation and group meeting, aspects of SCT, and infor- taken at each session. To facilitate optimal
improved mother–daughter relations. Pro- mation from previously successful physical attendance in the university-based group,
gram design was based on SCT and grew activity intervention programs (Dishman & weekly prizes such as tickets to athletic
out of focus group input, a prior mother– Buckworth, 1996; Ransdell et al., 2001). events, water bottle holders, hiking books,
daughter study that successfully influenced Once eligibility was confirmed, partici- and gift certificates to sporting goods stores
psychological factors (Ransdell et al., 2001), pants were randomly assigned to either the were awarded via a University of Utah
and program components that had previ- university-based or home-based interven- women’s sports trivia question contest.
ously demonstrated large effect sizes in
tion. After assignment to a group, partici- The home-based group received a de-
physical activity interventions (Dishman &
pants met for two classroom sessions. Top- tailed packet containing a calendar of rec-
Buckworth, 1996). The proposed hypoth-
ics of the classroom sessions for both groups ommended activities, pictures of various
esis for this study was that both home- and
included appropriate amounts of physical stretches and strength training activities
university-based interventions would facili-
activity, components of health-related fit- (using household items), and tips for over-
tate increased physical activity and im-
ness, calculating energy expenditure of vari- coming barriers to physical activity. They
proved mother–daughter relations.
ous activities, and using self-monitoring were asked to participate in a physical ac-
techniques such as goal setting and positive tivity program very similar to that provided
METHODS
self-talk. The home-based group also re- for the university-based group (e.g., 3 days
Study Participants ceived instructions about how to complete per week emphasizing flexibility, strength
Prior to the onset of this study, approval various exercises and stretches at home. training/calisthenics, and aerobic activities),
was obtained from the University of Utah To facilitate mother–daughter bonding, but they were not specifically asked to par-
Institutional Review Board for Human Re- specific activities were included in the ini- ticipate in physical activity sessions together.
American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1 21
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
Weekly calendar pages and preaddressed agree, neutral, and agree). Questions are di- Likert-type scale (strongly disagree, disagree,
stamped envelopes were also included so vided into two subscale areas: caring and agree, strongly agree): “My mother/daughter
that home-based participants could circle control. The caring scale, which consists of helps me feel confident about my physical
the physical activity sessions they completed 12 questions, measured the daughters’ per- abilities”; “My mother/daughter encourages
and send their logs to the first author on a ception of mom’s level of caring. Sample me to be more active than others in my fam-
bimonthly basis. Those who failed to sub- questions on this subscale include: “My ily”; and “My relationship with my mother/
mit their calendars in a timely fashion were mom speaks to me with a warm and daughter has improved through participa-
phoned repeatedly until 100% of the cal- friendly voice”; “My mom appears to un- tion together in physical activities.” These
endars were obtained. derstand my problems and worries”; “My questions demonstrated superior 1-week
To facilitate the initiation and mainte- mom is affectionate toward me”; and “My test-retest reliability (r=.95) and content va-
nance of physical activity, all participants mom enjoys talking things over with me.” lidity was established through an extensive
were asked to participate in additional mod- The range of scores on this subscale is 12 to literature review and evaluation by a panel
erate physical activity 1 to 2 additional days 48, and higher scores indicate that daugh- of experts as recommended by McKenzie,
during the week (e.g., taking the stairs in- ters think that mom “cares” more. The con- Wood, Kotecki, Clark, and Brey (1999).
stead of the elevator, parking farther away trol scale, which consists of 13 questions, Calculation of Program Adherence
and walking, etc). measured the daughters’ perception of Adherence to the university-based pro-
Data Collection Procedures mom’s level of over-protectiveness. Sample gram was calculated as follows. First, the
Measurements for this 12-week study questions on this subscale include: “My total number of possible classes (N=36) was
were collected at baseline and after comple- mom lets me do those things I like doing”; calculated and multiplied by the number of
tion of the intervention. Because both “My mom likes me to make my own deci- university-based participants (N=20) for a
groups were conducted concurrently, sions”; “My mom invades my privacy”; and total of 720 possible classes. This total num-
baseline data were collected in late January “My mom is overprotective of me.” The ber of possible classes (N=720) was used as
of 2000 and postintervention data were col- range of scores on this subscale is 13 to 52, the denominator in the university-based
lected 12-weeks later in late April of 2000. and higher scores indicate that mom is more adherence rate formula. Then, the total
For pre- and posttesting, participants were controlling. Optimal bonding is character- number of classes attended by all univer-
asked to schedule a 1-hour data collection ized by high care and low control scores sity-based participants (N=554) was calcu-
session during which they completed all (Gamsa, 1987). Parker et al. (1979) assessed lated from the attendance records and used
questionnaires. A summary of all assess- 3-week test-retest reliability and reported a as the numerator. Adherence to the univer-
ments conducted during the testing sessions Pearson correlation coefficient of .76 for the sity-based program was 77% (554/720).
is contained in the paragraphs below. caring scale and .63 for the overprotective- Adherence to the home-based program
The Fitnessgram Physical Activity Ques- ness scale. Concurrent validity of the scale was calculated by counting the total num-
tionnaire was used to detect any changes in was assessed by comparing raters’ scores of ber of recommended exercise sessions
physical activity level that resulted from the caring and overprotection obtained at inter- (N=36) on the weekly calendars and mul-
intervention. This questionnaire, developed views to questionnaire scores (r=.77 for car- tiplying that number by the number of
using questions from the Youth Risk Behav- ing and .48 for overprotection). Since the home-based participants (N=14) for a to-
ioral Surveillance Survey, has been deemed initial paper by Parker and colleagues (1979), tal of 504 recommended exercise sessions.
reliable and valid (Cooper Institute for several other researchers have deemed this This total number of recommended exer-
Aerobics Research, 1999). Specifically, it asks scale reliable and valid (Canetti, Bachar, cise sessions (N=504) was used as the de-
participants about the number of days per Galili-Weisstub, De-Nour, & Shalev, 1997; nominator in the home-based adherence
week that they participate in aerobic, resis- Enns, Cox, & Larsen, 2000; Parker, 1990). rate formula. Then, the total number of ses-
tance training, and flexibility exercises. Family and Physical Activity Participa- sions completed by all home-based partici-
The Parental Bonding Instrument tion Scale pants (as ascertained from weekly calendars
(Parker, Tupling, & Brown, 1979), used fre- In addition to the questions described mailed in every 2 weeks) (N=353) was used
quently in family counseling literature with above, three questions were developed in an as the numerator. Adherence to the home-
children and adolescents, was used to as- attempt to ascertain the impact of the fam- based program was 70% (353/504).
sess daughters’ perceived changes in ily on physical activity participation and Data Analysis
mother–daughter relations as a result of whether mothers and daughters felt their All data were analyzed using SPSS for
participating in the intervention. Mothers relationships with each other improved as Windows (version 10.1). At baseline and
did not complete this scale. The scale con- a result of participating in physical activity postintervention, researchers assessed
tains 25 questions, which are answered ac- together. Participants were asked to answer physical activity participation scores (aero-
cording to a 3-point Likert-type scale (dis- the following questions using a 4-point bic, muscular strength, and flexibility activi-
22 American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
self-rated health status.
Table 1. Summary of University-Based
Participant health, lifestyle, and demo-
Physical Activities During 12-Week Intervention
graphics characteristics are listed in Table
2. For the most part, randomization yielded
Week of
groups with similar characteristics. Daugh-
Intervention Physical Activities
ters were between 14 and 17 years of age
1 Classroom topics (discussed in detail in text) (M=15.41±1.33 years) and mothers
2 Weight circuit (self-testing of strength and development were between 31 and 60 years of age
of programs) (2 days) (M= 45.18±7.49 years). The majority of
Racquetball
participants were White with household
3 Weight circuit (2 days) incomes above $50,000. Most mothers were
Cross-country skiing
well-educated (at least some college) and
4 Aerobic and weight circuit (30 minutes each) married/living in a committed relationship.
Box aerobics
Interestingly, mothers in the home-based
Volleyball clinic with University of Utah athletes
group had slightly more education than
5 Weight and aerobic circuit (30 minutes each)
those in the university-based group, and
Box aerobics
mothers and daughters in the university-
Hike in Red Butte Canyon
based group were more likely to rate their
6 Weight and aerobic circuit (30 minutes each) 3 days)
health as good or excellent compared
7 Indoor cycling (spin) and weight circuit (30 minutes each) (2 days)
to mothers and daughters in the home-
Indoor rock climbing
based group.
8 Indoor cycling (spin) and weight circuit (30 minutes each) (2 days)
Parental Bonding Instrument
Soccer clinic
Table 3 presents data related to daughter’s
9 Weight Circuit and indoor soccer (30 minutes each)
perception of “mom’s caring” and “mom’s
Box aerobics
Day hike in Mill Creek Canyon control.” Daughters’ perceptions of mothers’
10 Frisbee golf/ultimate frisbee caring did not change significantly from pre-
Weight and aerobic circuit (30 minutes each) to posttest, nor were Group by Time inter-
Orienteering (map reading skills and activities) actions significant. Daughters’ perceived
11 Self-Defense mothers as being more controlling (p≤.05)
Aerobic and weight circuit (30 minutes each) after participating together in this physical
Basketball clinic with University of Utah athletes
activity program regardless of where the pro-
12 Weight and aerobic circuit (30 minutes each) (2 days) gram was administered.
Posttesting of both university- and home-based groups
Family and Physical Activity Participa-
tion Scale
ties), and subscale scores for the Parental questions, collected before and after the in- Results from the Family and Physical Ac-
Bonding Instrument (caring and tervention, are presented descriptively. tivity Participation Scale questions are pre-
overprotectiveness). Two (group)(two sented in Table 4. At posttest most daugh-
(time) repeated measures analyses of vari- RESULTS ters (88%) and mothers (94%) reported that
ance were used to examine changes in the One hundred percent of the university- “my relationship with my mother/daughter
aforementioned variables, and data for based participants (N=20) finished the has improved through participating in physi-
mothers and daughters were analyzed sepa- study and 70% of the home-based group cal activity together.” Increases, from pre- to
rately. Group by Time interactions were ex- (N=14) finished the study. Three pairs posttest, in the proportion of participants
amined to detect differences between the ef- (N=6) from the home-based group who strongly agreed or agreed with that
fects of the university-based and dropped out within the first 3 weeks of the statement ranged from 23 to 35%.
home-based programs. Homogeneity of study due to illness and time constraints.
Physical Activity Participation
variance and sphericity assumptions were When baseline data from the dropouts were
Tables 5 and 6 present changes in physi-
checked prior to analysis and all met the compared with data from those who fin-
cal activity behavior (d•wk-1) of university-
standard criteria. Effect sizes (eta-squared) ished the study, dropouts were not signifi-
based and home-based mothers and daugh-
were computed to detect the magnitude of cantly different from participants in terms
ters. Mothers and daughters in both the
the treatment effect. Data from the Family of physical activity, age, ethnicity, marital
university- and home-based groups re-
and Physical Activity Participation Scale status of mothers, income, education, or
American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1 23
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
Table 2. Characteristics of Mothers and Daughters by Group Assignment
Lifestyle,
Demographic,
University-Based Home-Based University-Based Home-Based
or Health
Moms (M±SD) Moms (M±SD) Daughters (M±SD) Daughters (M±SD)
Characteristic
Age (years) 46.0±8.54 44.0±6.11 15.20±1.23 15.71±1.50
Ethnicity (% participants)
White 100% 86% 100% 86%
Pacific Islander 14% 14%
Marital Status (% participants)
Married or living in a committed relationship 70% 100% N/A N/A
Divorced, separated, or widowed 30% 0%
Yearly Household Income (% participants)
< $10,000 10% 0% N/A N/A
$35,000–49,999 10% 14%
$50,000–74,999 30% 57%
$75,000 & above 50% 29%
Education level of moms (% participants)
Some college 40% 71% N/A
College graduate 60% 29% N/A
Currently smoke (% participants) 10% 0% N/A N/A
Overall health rating (% participants)
Poor or fair 10% 50% 40% 57%
Good or excellent 90% 50% 60% 43%
ported significant increases in aerobic ac- this study were that (a) both university- and setting can be beneficial for mother–daugh-
tivity, muscular strength building activity, home-based physical activity interventions ter relations.
and flexibility activities across time. Group facilitated increased participation in physi- An interesting finding is that the univer-
by Time interactions were not significant, cal activity in mothers and daughters; and sity- and home-based daughter’s perception
indicating that there were no differences (b) most mothers and daughters reported of mother’s control increased significantly
between increases in physical activity feeling increased support for physical activ- during the intervention, whereas perceived
participation for university- and home- ity and improved mother–daughter rela- caring did not change. Parker (1983) ex-
based groups. tions. Interestingly, no differences were re- plains that excessive contact is one of the
ported between the university-based and manifestations of maternal control or
DISCUSSION home-based programs. overprotection. It is likely that this study
The purpose of this study was to deter- It has been determined that parental allowed the mother and daughter to spend
mine the effects of 12-week university- and encouragement is an important correlate of more time than normal together, traveling
home-based programs on physical activity an adolescent’s physical activity (Anderssen to and from the intervention and while
participation and mother–daughter rela- & Wold, 1992). Taylor and colleagues (1994) exercising together. This increased contact
tions. To our knowledge no previous stud- suggested that a child’s encouragement can time may lead to the daughters’ perception
ies have examined changes in relationships also positively effect a parent’s physical ac- of increased maternal control. It is also
between mothers and daughters as a result tivity. These important findings add to the possible that physiological and psychologi-
of participating in a physical activity inter- evidence that physical activity with family cal changes resulting from adolescence
vention. The most important findings of members at home and within a university alone could facilitate increased perceived
24 American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
Table 3. Changes in Daughters Scores on Parental Bonding Instrument
as a Result of 12-Week DAMET Project
University-Based Home-Based
(N=10) (N=7)
Variable M±SD M±SD F-Value p-Value Eta-Squared
Parental Bonding Instrument (caring)
Pre 28.22±5.26 24.86±4.95
Post 27.56±5.22 26.57±4.47
Group 0.91 .36 .06
Time 0.23 .64 .02
Interaction 1.16 .30 .08
Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) (control)
Pre 15.11±6.85 14.86±4.85
Post 18.00±4.74 16.29±4.46
Group 0.15 .70 .01
Time 4.93 .04* .26
Interaction 0.56 .47 .04
Notes: PBI scale consists of 25 items: 12 “caring” items and 13 “control” items. Scores on the caring scale range from 12 to 48 and scores on the control
scale range from 13 to 52. “Optimal parenting range” for the PBI is defined as a high caring score (above 25) and a low control score (below 20). The
internal consistency (coefficient alpha) for each scale was acceptable (r=.90 for the caring scale and r=.83 for the control scale). Effect sizes (eta-squared)
from Cohen (1969): 0.01=small, 0.06=medium, and 0.14=large.
*p ≤ .05
Table 4. Percentage of Participants Who Experienced Changes in Mother/Daughter Relations Before and
After Participation in a 12-Week University- or Home-Based Physical Activity Intervention
Daughter
(% Who
Mom Strongly Agree
(% Who Strongly or Agree with
Mom Agree or Agree Daughter Statement at
(% Who with Statement at (% Who Posttest)
Strongly Agree Posttest) (Percent- Strongly Agree (Percentage
or Agree with age Change from or Agree with Change from
Statement at Pre- to Posttest in Statement at Pre- to Posttest
Question Pretest) Parentheses) Pretest) in Parentheses)
My mother/daughter helps me feel
more confident about physical abilities 41 65 (+24) 53 94 (+41)
My mother/daughter encourages me
to be more active 41 65 (+24) 88 94 (+6)
My relationship with my mother/daughter
has improved through participation in
physical activity together 71 94 (+23) 53 88 (+35)
American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1 25
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
Table 5. Changes in Physical Activity Behavior of Daughters in 12-week DAMET Project
University-Based Home-Based
(N=10) (N=7)
Variable M±SD M±SD F-Value p-Value Eta-Squared
Aerobic activity (d•wk-1)
Pre 2.25±1.62 2.00±1.82
Post 4.30±1.16 2.71±1.88
Group 2.27 .15 .13
Time 7.53 .02* .33
Interaction 1.76 .21 .11
Muscular strength building activity (d•wk-1)
Pre 0.95+1.12 1.29+1.80
Post 2.40+1.27 3.21 + 1.86
Group .90 .36 .06
Time 17.01 .001** .53
Interaction .34 .57 .02
Flexibility activities (d•wk-1)
Pre 2.15±2.33 1.00±1.15
Post 4.00±1.76 4.86±1.22
Group .06 .81 .00
Time 20.98 .000*** .58
Interaction 2.60 .12 .15
Notes: Effect sizes (eta-squared) from Cohen (1969) using F-values: 0.01=small, 0.06=medium, 0.14=large.
*p ≤ .05; **p ≤ .01; ***p ≤ .001.
control of mothers over daughters. Al- At baseline, physical activity participa- rately or participating in physical activity
though perceived control did increase, the tion levels of daughters were higher than outside of the intervention.
pre- and posttest means for both university- those of mothers. This finding is fairly Another important finding is that
and home-based daughters are within typical in that younger individuals are of- attendance and participation in these
Parker’s (1983) “optimal parenting” range, ten more active than older individuals interventions was high for both groups
indicating positive relations between (USDHHS, 2000). It was also noteworthy (70–77%), especially compared to other
mothers and daughters before and after that posttest values for physical activity family-based interventions (Baranowski et
the interventions. behavior were fairly similar for mothers and al., 1990; Epstein et al., 1990; Nader et al.,
Results from the Family and Physical daughters in the university-based group, 1989; Ransdell et al., 2001). Some of the
Activity Participation Scale consistently validating their consistent group participa- components that may have contributed to
supported the notion that the family pro- tion in activity throughout the 12 weeks of our high adherence rate were (a) targeting
vides powerful support for physical activ- the study. In contrast, compared to mothers and daughters together; (b) using
ity participation, and that participation in mothers from the home-based group, focus group activity recommendations;
physical activity together can potentially daughters from the home-based group par- (c) selecting desirable and age-appropriate
enhance relations between mothers and ticipated in more d•wk-1 of muscular modes of physical activity (e.g., hiking, rock
daughters. It is likely that the Family and strength and flexibility activity after climbing, cross-country skiing, etc.);
Physical Activity Participation Scale mea- completion of the study. Slight discrepan- (d) using previously successful physical
sured different or more general aspects of cies in reported physical activity participa- activity intervention characteristics; and
family relations than the Parental Bonding tion upon completion of the study are likely (e) hiring enthusiastic and outgoing activ-
Instrument, which was limited to perceived the result of home-based mothers and ity leaders.
maternal caring and control. daughters participating in activities sepa- There were no significant differences
26 American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
Table 6. Changes in Physical Activity Behavior of Mothers in 12-Week DAMET Project
University-Based Home-Based
(N=10) (N=7)
Variable M±SD M±SD F-Value p-Value Eta-Squared
Aerobic activity (d•wk-1)
Pre 1.00±1.05 .57±.79
Post 4.40±.97 3.0±2.0
Group 3.96 .07 .21
Time 52.31 .000*** .78
Interaction 1.45 .25 .09
Muscular strength building activity (d•wk-1)
Pre 0.60±1.58 .28±.76
Post 2.00±1.33 2.00±1.60
Group .08 .79 .01
Time 16.72 .001*** .53
Interaction .17 .69 .01
Flexibility activities (d•wk-1)
Pre .80±1.55 .14±.38
Post 3.20±1.69 2.57±1.81
Group 1.09 ..31 .07
Time 34.19 .000*** .70
Interaction .00 .97 .00
Notes: Effect sizes (eta-squared) from Cohen (1969) using F-values: 0.01=small, 0.06=medium, 0.14=large.
***p≤ .001.
between changes in physical activity partici- ranted. Another limitation of this study was searchers might consider using the
pation or changes in family relations based the failure to use a true control group. We adolescent validated Parental Bonding
on group assignment (home- or university- used university- and home-based groups Instrument-Brief Current form (Klimidis,
based). This has important implications with the belief that the failure to provide Minas, & Ata, 1992; Klimidis, Minas,
for the cost-effectiveness of program de- the opportunity for physical activity for any Ata, & Steward, 1992) which is an eight-
velopment. If it is true that home-based group—especially sedentary populations— item version of the long form Parental
programs are as effective as university-based is unethical (Abrams, Emmons, & Linnan, Bonding Instrument developed by Parker
programs in terms of facilitating changes 1997). Furthermore, the comparison of and colleagues (1979). Additionally, exam-
in health-enhancing physical activity and home-based and clinical settings without a ining the effects of physical activity inter-
family relations, then individuals inter- true control group has occurred before in ventions on families who are dysfunctional
ested in health promotion could save sig- large, federally funded research projects prior to the study (e.g., low parental caring
nificant amounts of money developing (Dunn et al., 1997, 1998; Kohl, Dunn, and high parental control) is another
home-based programs. Marcus, & Blair, 1998). A third limitation important direction that might have
Although results of this study were posi- of the study is that participants volunteered significant implications for physical activ-
tive, certain limitations should be men- to participate in the study. They were prob- ity intervention research.
tioned. Because we used a small sample size, ably more interested in physical activity
and the participants were mostly White and than individuals who did not volunteer CONCLUSION
highly educated with a relatively high to participate. This intervention was designed to expose
household income, the results may not be In the future, the successful aspects of sedentary mothers and daughters to home-
generalizable to some of the American pub- this intervention should be replicated and university-based physical activity pro-
lic. Clearly, replication studies are war- with other mother–daughter pairs. Re- grams with the hope of increasing physical
American Journal of Health Education — January/February 2003, Volume 34, No. 1 27
Lynda B. Ransdell, Eric Eastep, Alison Taylor, Darcie Oakland, Jenny Schmidt, Laurie Moyer-Mileur, and Barry Shultz
activity and improving family relations. Biddle, S., & Goudas, M. (1996). Analysis of and obesity. International Journal of Obesity, 23,
With very little research done in this area, children’s physical activity and its association 1262–1268.
this program provides a promising model with adult encouragement and social cognitive Gamsa, A. (1987). A note on a modification
for improving family relations through variables. Journal of School Health, 66, 75–78. of the parental bonding instrument. British
physical activity. Canetti, L., Bachar, E., Galili-Weisstub, E., Journal of Medical Psychology, 60, 291–294.
De-Nour, A.K., & Shalev, A.Y. (1997). Parental Kalakanis, L. E., Goldfield, G. S., Paluch, R.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS bonding and mental health in adolescence. Ado- A., & Epstein, L. H. (2001). Parental activity as
The authors wish to thank the review- lescence, 32, 381–394. a determinant of activity level and patterns of
ers, who provided valuable suggestions for Cohen, J. (1969). Statistical power analysis activity in obese children. Research Quarterly for
improving this manuscript. for the behavioral sciences (1st ed.). New York: Exercise & Sport, 72(3), 202–209.
Academic Press. Klimidis, S., Minas, I. H., & Ata, A. W. (1992).
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