Table Of ContentJOURNALOFAPPLIEDBEHAVIORANALYSIS 2009, 42, 123–143 NUMBER1 (SPRING2009)
ANEVALUATIONOFTHERELATIVEEFFICACYOFANDCHILDREN’S
PREFERENCES FOR TEACHING STRATEGIES THAT DIFFER IN
AMOUNT OF TEACHER DIRECTEDNESS
NICOLE A. HEAL, GREGORY P. HANLEY, AND STACY A. LAYER
UNIVERSITYOFKANSAS
The manner in which teachers mediate children’s learning varies across early childhood
classrooms. In this study, we used a multielement design to evaluate the efficacy of three
commonly implemented strategies that varied in teacher directedness for teaching color- and
object-namerelations.Strategy1consistedofbriefexposuretothetargetrelationsfollowedbyan
exclusivelychild-ledplayperiodinwhichcorrectresponseswerepraised.Strategy2wassimilar
exceptthatteachers promptedthechildren tovocalizerelationsandcorrected errorsvia model
prompts.Strategy3incorporatedthesameproceduresasStrategy2exceptthatabriefperiodof
teacher-initiated trials was arranged; these trials involved the use of prompt delay between
questionsandprompts,andcorrectresponsesresultedintokensandback-upactivityreinforcers.
Children’spreferencesforthedifferentteachingstrategieswerealsodirectlyassessed.Strategy3
wasmosteffectiveinpromotingtheacquisitionandgeneralizationofthecolor-andobject-name
relations and was also most preferred by the majority of children, Strategy 1 was the least
effective, and Strategy 2 was typically the least preferred. Implications for the design of early
educational environmentsbased onevidence-based valuesarediscussed.
DESCRIPTORS: child preference, direct instruction, discovery learning, embedded
teaching,evidence-based teaching strategies
_______________________________________________________________________________
The practices of early childhood educators end of the continuum generally result in high
havebeenguidedbytherecommendationsfrom levels of child engagement, whereas strategies
boththeNationalAssociationfortheEducation located at the teacher-initiated end generally
of Young Children (NAEYC; Bredekamp & produce specific teacher-selected behaviors
Copple, 1997) and the Division of Early (Wolery & Sainato, 1996). Discovery learning,
Childhood (DEC; Smith et al., 2002). A embedded teaching, and direct instruction are
dominant belief that is consistent with these threespecificearlychildhoodteachingstrategies
position statements is the importance of varied that occupydifferent pointson thiscontinuum.
child–environment interactions to promote On the child-initiated endpoint of the
learning. Wolery and Wilbers (1994) outlined continuum lies discovery learning, a teaching
a continuum on which teaching strategies can method developed from the constructivist
be located, with exclusively child-initiated philosophy of learning (Piaget, 1970) in which
interactions at one endpoint and exclusively thelearnerisexpectedtodiscovernewideasand
teacher-initiated interactions at the other end- relations throughindependent interactions with
point. Strategies located at the child-initiated theenvironmentwithlittleornoguidancefrom
a teacher(Bruner, 1961).The teacher’sprimary
This research is based on a dissertation by the first
role is to arrange the environment to promote
author submitted to the University of Kansas in partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the PhD degree. We independent interactions with thematerials and
thank Edward Morris, Jan Sheldon, Holly Storkel, and expose the child to the learning objectives
Rachel Thompson for their helpful comments on an
through intermittent commenting and ac-
earlierversionof thismanuscript.
RequestsforreprintsshouldbeaddressedtoGregoryP. knowledgmentwhenachildissuccessful(Klahr
Hanley, Psychology Department, Western New England &Nigam,2004;Solter&Mayer,1978).Active
College, 1215 Wilbraham Road, Springfield, Massachu-
engagement and reinforcement that are not
setts,01119(e-mail: [email protected]).
doi:10.1901/jaba.2009.42-123 socially mediated (i.e., so-called intrinsic moti-
123
124 NICOLE A. HEAL et al.
vation) are presumed to be the critical variables adopted during direct instruction; these include
underpinning the learning that occurs in this constant or progressive prompt delays, error
approach. correction via modeling correct answers or brief
Embedded teaching (Bricker, Pretti-Front- time-outperiods,anddifferentialreinforcement
czak, & McComas, 1998) is located in the of correct responding with high-quality or
middle of the continuum and is characterized highly preferred items.
by instructions and feedback regarding target Each of these three teaching approaches
skills being delivered within child-initiated varies primarily in the amount of teacher
activities during typical routines. Embedded directedness during the teaching situation, and
teaching strategies were derived from the early each has unique strengths and weaknesses. The
work of Hart and Risley (1968, 1975) on discovery-oriented approaches require the care-
incidental teaching. A typical example of ful selection of learning materials, but demands
incidental teaching involves the teacher placing on the teacher are not high during the learning
preferred materials within sight but out of the period. A second advantage of this approach is
child’s reach, thereby increasing the likelihood that the teacher respects the momentary
that the child will request the materials. When preferences of children for simultaneously
the child engages in the desirable request, the available activities and materials. However,
materials are provided. According to Daugh- because this approach is devoid of prompts
erty, Grisham-Brown, and Hemmeter (2001), and feedback from the teacher, specific learning
multiple variations of the embedded teaching objectives are difficult to target, and it is
procedure have been described, with character- difficulttodeterminethespecificskillsacquired
istics such as type of activity, prompts, as a direct function of this teaching approach
programmed consequences, and learning mate- (Mayer, 2004). Despite the lack of empirical
rials distinguishing the variations. Nevertheless, evidence supporting the efficacy of purely
learning opportunities are considered child discovery-oriented teaching methods (Mayer),
initiated, and the reinforcing consequences for these methods are included as recommended
engaging in target responses are considered practicebytheNAEYC(Bredekamp&Copple,
natural in that the child continues to play with 1997).
materials following a trial of embedded teach- Because teacher prompting and feedback are
ing,orthechildreceivestherequesteditemthat arranged during embedded teaching, specific
is associated with the scheduled activity. skill acquisition occurs with this approach (Fox
Athirdteachingstrategy,whichis locatedon & Hanline, 1993; Horn, Lieber, Li, Sandall, &
the teacher-initiated end of the continuum, is Schwartz, 2000; Woods, Kashinath, & Gold-
direct instruction, in which the teacher plays a stein, 2004). When compared to direct instruc-
more prominent role in the teaching situation tion, embedded teaching produced similar skill
(Magliaro, Lockee, & Burton, 2005). Direct acquisition; however, better skill generalization
instruction is characterized by relatively simple was observed by Losardo and Bricker (1994)
and precise materials tailored to specific and McGee, Krantz, and McClannahan (1985)
learning objectives, planned (and sometimes with the embedded procedures. A primary
scripted) prompting procedures, provision of disadvantage of embedded teaching is the
high-quality reinforcers for correct responding, difficulty inherent in routine and successful
and multiple trials conducted during brief implementation. For example, Pretti-Frontczak
teaching periods (Fredrick, Deitz, Bryceland, and Bricker (2001) observed that following
&Hummel,2001).WoleryandSainato(1996) extensive training on implementing embedded
outlined a variety of procedures that are often teaching, early childhood and early childhood
EFFICACY AND PREFERENCE 125
special educators implemented these procedures for directly determining preferences of children
on less than 10% of observation intervals. withdisabilitiesforbehavioralinterventionswas
Along with questionable generalization of described by Hanley, Piazza, Fisher, Contrucci,
skills acquired during direct instruction, a andMaglieri(1997)andHanley,Piazza,Fisher,
primary criticism is usually directed towards and Maglieri (2005). These procedures were
its reliance on contrived learning opportunities, recently extended to determine children’s
materials (e.g., flash cards), and programmed preferencesforinstructionalcontextsthatvaried
consequences(e.g.,tokens,tradedinforbackup in the amount of child control (Tiger, Hanley,
material reinforcers; see Strain et al., 1992). & Hernandez, 2006), amount of information
Despite strong empirical evidence for the regarding the availability of teacher attention
efficacy of direct instruction (Adams & Engle- (Tiger,Hanley,&Heal,2006),andbythetype
mann, 1996; Stebbins, St. Pierre, Proper, of motivational system (Heal & Hanley, 2007).
Anderson, & Cerva, 1977), these procedures In these studies, different-colored poster boards
are not widely adopted by early childhood were correlated with the different teaching
educators (Walsh & Petty, 2006). strategies (or interventions), and children re-
A teaching strategy that has overwhelming peatedly experienced the strategies in the
empirical support but that is not considered to presence of the colored poster boards. Smaller
be socially acceptable by relevant consumers colored cards or microswitches, one associated
(parents, teachers, and interventionists) is not with each strategy, were then made available to
likely to be adopted in practice (Wolf, 1978). thechildrenoutsidetheroominwhichteaching
Schwartz(1999)observedtheimportanceofthe typically occurred, and the child was asked to
construct of social validity with the early select the one he or she liked best. When the
childhood interventions of direct instruction child handed a card to the teacher (or pressed a
and activity-based (embedded) instruction for microswitch), the teacher and child entered the
teaching arithmetic. The strongest research room and briefly experienced the strategy
support is in favor of direct instruction, but associated with the selected color. This process
embedded teaching has greater social validity of handing cards (or pressing switches) and
(i.e., parents and teachers find it more accept- experiencing correlated strategies was repeated
able), and the latter is adopted more in until the child selected one option on a regular
preschool settings. Thus, determining the basis (or some other pattern emerged). Thus,
acceptabilityofearlychildhoodpractices,which preferences for contexts, which were difficult to
is usually accomplished by administering ques- describe to young children, were directly
tionnaires to teachers or other relevant stake- assessed by recording each child’s selections of
holders, is important when designing early cues correlated with the important teaching or
childhood classroom practices. However, an intervention strategies.
additional measure of a practice’s value may be In the current study, the relative efficacy of
obtained from the children who directly and children’s preferences for three teaching
experience it, and these measures of children’s strategies that differed in the amount of teacher
acceptance may provide additional compelling directedness (discovery oriented, embedded,
evidence for the adoptability of a practice. and direct instruction) was determined using
Determining the acceptability of instruction- single-subject experimental designs. The proce-
al strategies with young children of limited dures implemented in each teaching strategy
verbal competence, limited history with the were not mutually exclusive; instead, more
strategies in question, or both, complicates this elements were added to each successive strategy
process considerably. Nevertheless, a procedure such that the mediating role of the teacher in
126 NICOLE A. HEAL et al.
Table 1
the learning situation was more extensive across
Target Responses forEach Teaching Strategy
the strategies. Thus, our analysis allows a
description of the added value of embedding
Targetresponses
learning opportunities and providing brief
Relation Strategy1 Strategy2 Strategy3
periods of direct instruction. Relative efficacy
Color Anaranjado Morado Amarillo
of these strategies for teaching preschool
Orange Purple Yellow
children naming relations was assessed by Azul Negro Blanco
Blue Black White
examining skill acquisition data (i.e., number
Gris Plata Cafe´
of learning opportunities, percentage of correct Gray Silver Brown
responses, and latency to mastery) and pre- and Rosa Rojo Verde
Pink Red Green
posttestdatawithrespecttotherelationstaught Animal Caballo Pato Cochino
in each strategy. In addition, children’s prefer- Horse Duck Pig
Gallina Perro Pajaro
ences for the strategies were determined by
Chicken Dog Bird
directly measuring their selections of each Gato Serpiente Rana
Cat Snake Frog
strategy over time.
Pez Tortuga Vaca
Fish Turtle Cow
METHOD
PARTICIPANTSAND SETTING assessment (i.e., color- and animal-name assess-
Participants were 6 Caucasian English-speak- ments) were rotated across sessions. Within
ingchildren,4girlsand2boysagedfrom48to each set of materials, each target stimulus was
61 months (M 5 55 months). The children represented by three items. We included three
attended a full-day inclusive preschool class- distinct sets of materials for each relation
room that served children of typical and becauseweaimedtokeepthechildren’sinterest
atypical development. None of the children in the toy sets high throughout the study, we
had been diagnosed with a developmental did not want the children to select one of the
disability; however, individualized curricula three teaching strategies to gain access to a
showed great variability in their progress. particular toy set during the preference assess-
Children were selected for participation based ments, and we were explicitly programming for
on informed consent and consistent classroom generalization of the name relations across
attendance. All sessions were conducted in a stimuli. In addition to the multiple toy sets,
small room (3 m by 3 m) near the children’s 12 color and animal cards, plastic tokens, and a
classroomthatcontained achild-sizedtableand treasure box were arranged in the strategy
chairs (in addition to the session materials). involving some direct instruction. Each teach-
ing strategy was associated with distinctly
MATERIALS colored large (60 cm by 75 cm) and small
Two relations were taught to each child. The (15 cm by 10 cm) laminated poster boards.
child was initially taught to vocally label colors
in Spanish; then he or she was taught to vocally RESPONSE MEASUREMENTAND
label animals in Spanish. There were 12 color INTEROBSERVER AGREEMENT
and 12 animal names taught. Each strategy was Data were collected using paper and pencil
associated with four color relations and then within 15-s intervals. A child-initiated learning
four animal relations (see Table 1 for the opportunity was defined as the first occurrence
specific color and animal relations). Three sets within each 15-s interval of the child grasping a
of materials designed to evoke the target target item or pushing down on the target item
responses (color or animal names) during each for a minimum of 1 s. If a second target item
EFFICACY AND PREFERENCE 127
was touched within the same 15-s interval, this agreements by the number of agreements plus
was not scored as a child-initiated learning the number of disagreements and then convert-
opportunity. Teacher-initiated learning oppor- ing this ratio to a percentage. Agreement was
tunities were scored when the teacher held up a 94%(sessionrange,50%to100%)forlearning
colororanimalcardandinEnglishsaid,‘‘What opportunities and 98% (session range, 67% to
color [animal] is this?’’ Learning opportunities 100%) for correct responses across all children
are reported as a frequency count within each and assessments. Interobserver agreement was
teaching strategy, and the numbers of child-
collected and calculated in the same manner as
initiated and teacher-initiated learning oppor-
described above for card selections in a
tunities are combined in Strategy 3. Given an
minimum of 20% of all preference assessments
occurrence of a learning opportunity, a correct
across all children (range, 20% to 37%). An
response was scored when the child indepen-
agreement, defined as both observers recording
dently and correctly said the Spanish word
the same card selection for each session, was
corresponding with the target stimulus within
100% across all children and assessments.
5 softheinitiationofthelearningopportunity,
and a frequency count across intervals is FIDELITYOF TEACHERS’ PROMPTS
reported. In addition, the mean percentage of AND CONSEQUENCES
correctrespondingwascalculatedbycalculating
Measuresofproceduralfidelitywerecollected
the mean percentage correct scored within the
on the teachers’ delivery of the initial vocal
final five sessions of each teaching strategy for
prompt and consequences provided following
the color- and animal-name assessments.
the child’s response in each teaching strategy.
During the preference assessments, selections
Given a learning opportunity, data were
were scored and defined as the child removing
recorded on the nonoccurrence (Strategy 1) or
one of the three cards from the door and
occurrence (Strategies 2 and 3) of an initial
handing it to the teacher. Card selections are
vocal teacher prompt (e.g., ‘‘What color is
reported as a preference rank in which 1
that?’’)foreachsession.Becausetheteacherwas
represents the first card selected and 3 repre-
not to deliver a vocal prompt following the
sentsthelastcardselected.Sessiondurationwas
initiation of a learning opportunity during
recorded and is reported as mean duration
Strategy 1 sessions, to calculate fidelity the
across children and assessments. Mean session
number of learning opportunities in which the
duration was calculated by calculating mean
teacher did not deliver a vocal prompt was
session durations for each child; individual
divided by the total number of learning
means were then averaged across all children
opportunities, and this ratio was converted to
and assessments.
a percentage. By contrast, the teacher was
A second observer recorded behavior simul-
required to deliver a vocal prompt during
taneously but independently in at least 27% of
Strategies 2 and 3; thus, to calculate fidelity,
sessions across all children and assessments the number of learning opportunities in which
(range, 27% to 60%). The records of each the teacher delivered a vocal prompt was
observer were compared on an interval-by- divided by the total number of learning
interval basis. An agreement was scored when opportunities, and this ratio was converted to
both observers scored the occurrence or nonoc- a percentage.
currence of a learning opportunity and occur- Given a learning opportunity and child
rence or nonoccurrence of a correct response response, consequences also varied across the
within each interval. Interobserver agreement three teaching strategies. Following an incorrect
was calculated by dividing the number of or no response the teacher was required not to
128 NICOLE A. HEAL et al.
deliver a model prompt during Strategy 1 preschoolers. The counterbalanced and rapid
sessions, but the teacher was required to deliver alternation of the three teaching conditions
a model prompt following an incorrect or no allowed performance in each of the three
response during Strategies 2 and 3. In addition, strategies to be influenced by outside factors
theteacher wasalways required todeliver praise (lack of sleep, illness) similarly and for each
following a correct response in all three child to experience each strategy for the same
strategies. To calculate fidelity measures on amount of time. A concurrent-chains arrange-
teacher consequences during Strategy 1 given a ment (Catania & Sagvolden, 1980; Hanley et
learning opportunity, the number of correct al., 1997) was used to determine children’s
preferences for the teaching strategies.
responses in which the teacher delivered praise
plus the number of incorrect or no responses in
PROCEDURE
which the teacher did not deliver a model
Overview
prompt were divided by the total number of
Three preassessments were conducted prior
child responses and then converted to a
to evaluating the relative efficacy of and
percentage. For Strategies 2 and 3, given a
preference for the three teaching strategies. To
learning opportunity, the number of correct
identifythecolorsthatwouldbeassociatedwith
responses that were followed by teacher praise
each strategy, a paired-item color preference
plus the number of incorrect or no responses
assessment was conducted first. To ensure that
that were followed by a teacher model prompt
each child had the necessary skills to echo a
were divided by the total number of child
model prompt, an echoic assessment was
responses, and this ratio was converted to a
conducted second. To assess each child’s skill
percentage.
levelwithrespecttothecolor-andanimal-name
Across all children and assessments, the
relations, a pretest with all 12 target relations
teacherdidnotdeliveravocalpromptfollowing
was conducted third. Following the simulta-
a learning opportunity for a mean of 99% of
neousevaluationofefficacyandpreference,post
opportunities during Strategy 1. The teacher
tests of the color- and animal-name relations
did deliver a vocal prompt following the
were conducted and served as a measure of
initiation of a learning opportunity on a mean
generalization for the acquired relations.
of 93% and 97% of opportunities during
Strategies 2 and 3, respectively, across all
Preassessments
children and assessments. Given a learning
Color preference assessment. Ten colored cards
opportunity and child response, the teacher
were initially included in a paired-item assess-
delivered the appropriate consequence on a
ment(Fisher etal.,1992)with eachchild.Each
mean of 99%, 96%, and 98% of opportunities
coloredcardwaspairedwitheveryothercolored
across all children and assessments during
card once, the pairs were presented to the child
Strategies 1, 2, and 3, respectively. Taken
one at a time, the child was prompted to touch
together, these data suggest that the procedures
the color he or she liked best, and the colored
of each strategy were implemented with a high
cardselectedwasscored.Theorderofpresented
degree of fidelity.
pairs was randomized. For every card selection,
EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN the teacher delivered a brief statement of praise
A multielement single-subject experimental (e.g., ‘‘thanks’’); therefore, no differential
design (Sidman, 1960) was used to determine consequences were provided for selecting a
the relative efficacy of the three strategies for particular colored card. Selection percentages
teaching color- and object-name relations to 6 and a preference hierarchy were obtained by
EFFICACY AND PREFERENCE 129
dividing the number of times a card was asked, ‘‘What color [animal] is this?’’ No
selected by the total number of times it was consequences were delivered following correct
presented, and this ratio was converted to a or incorrect responses. However, the teacher
percentage.Thethreecolorsthatwereidentified provided statements of descriptive praise (e.g.,
as moderately and similarly preferred (i.e., ‘‘nice sitting’’) after every other trial. Correct
and incorrect responses were scored.
colors that were identified in the middle of
the preference hierarchy) were selected to
Efficacy Assessment
decreasethelikelihoodthatthechild’sselections
Afterthethreepreassessmentswereconducted,
in the strategy preference assessments might be
the efficacy assessment began. Three distinct
controlled by a preexisting color preference.
sessions made up a session block; one session
Thethreecardswerethenrandomlyassignedto
blockwasconductedperday,suchthateachchild
each of the strategies and were held constant
experienced each teaching strategy once daily.
throughout the efficacy and preference assess-
The same teacher conducted all sessions and
ments for each child.
provided some form of attention (i.e., specific
Echoic assessment. A nine-trial assessment to
prompts, praise, comments) during each 15-s
determine if each child could echo one- to five-
interval such that the amount of attention the
syllable words in English was conducted next.
child received was similar across the three
The trial types were adjusted according to the
strategies. The mediating role of the teacher
responses. In the first trial, the teacher vocally varied across the three strategies, ranging from
modeled a one-syllable word (e.g., ‘‘cat’’ or playingaveryminimalrole(Strategy1)toplaying
‘‘milk’’) and then prompted the child to repeat amoreprominentrole(Strategy3)intheteaching
the word. If the child successfully echoed the situation.Inaddition,thestrategieswerearranged
word, a two-syllable word (e.g., ‘‘apple’’ or such that new elements were added to the ones
‘‘crayon’’) was presented on the next trial. This arrangedinthepreviousstrategy(e.g.,Strategy3
process continued until five-syllable words were incorporated elements ofStrategies1 and 2 plus
presented. If a response was incorrect or the additionalelements).Table 2containsasumma-
child did not respond within 5 s of the model ryoftheelementsineachteachingstrategy.
prompt,thenextwordpresented contained one Strategy1.TheroleoftheteacherinStrategy1
less syllable than the word that was not was to describe the target relations to the child,
successfully echoed. If all responses were arrange the environment to promote active
correct,theteachervocallymodeledfive-syllable engagement, and provide feedback when the
wordsforthefinalfourtrials.Ashortstatement child responded correctly. The child and teacher
of praise was delivered following correct sat on the floor across from each other with the
responses, and no corrective feedback was toys on a colored mat that corresponded to
provided following incorrect or no responses. Strategy 1 between them. Because this was the
The next trial was initiated following a 2-s onlystrategyinwhichtheteacherneverprompt-
pause. All children correctly echoed at least one ed responses or provided correct-answer models,
five-syllable word during this assessment. presession exposure was arranged in which the
Pretest. A novel teacher who was fluent in teachervocallylabeledeachtargetitemonceprior
Spanish conducted all pretests with each child. to the start of each session. Specifically, the
Theteacherinstructed thechildtoanswerallof teacherhelduponetargetstimulusatatimeand
the questions in Spanish prior to the start of labeleditinSpanishuntileachnamerelationwas
each pretest. Sitting across from the child at a labeledonce.Allinteractionswerechildinitiated;
child-sized table, the teacher held up one theteacherprovidednopromptstoplayanddid
laminated color or animal card and in English notdirectlyorindirectlyquestionthechildabout
130 NICOLE A. HEAL et al.
Table 2
Summaryof the Elements ofEachTeaching Strategy
Strategy1 Strategy2 Strategy3
Presessionexposure — —
— — Teacher-initiatedlearningopportunities
(promptdelay,conditionedandback-up
reinforcers)
Child-initiatedlearningopportunities Child-initiatedlearningopportunities Child-initiatedlearningopportunities
followedbyateachervocalprompt followedbyateachervocalprompt
Praiseprovidedforacorrectresponse Praiseprovidedforacorrectresponse Praiseprovidedforacorrectresponse
— Correctivefeedbackprovidedforanerror Correctivefeedbackprovidedforanerror
Note.Dashindicates theabsence ofthe element ineach teaching strategy.
eithercolor-oranimal-namerelations(i.e.,when question was not issued; only the first target
thechildtouchedatargetitem,therebyinitiating item touched in each 15-s interval occasioned
alearningopportunity,theteacherdidnotdeliver teaching. Two changes from Strategy 1 were
prompts of any sort). If the child emitted the also relevant. First, the relations were not
targetresponsewithin 5 softheinitiationofthe dictated to the child at the start of these
learningopportunity(e.g.,thechildsaid,‘‘Thisis sessions, and second, a different-colored mat
azul’’), the teacher provided praise (e.g., ‘‘That’s was present during Strategy 2.
right,thatisazul!’’).Inaddition,theteachernever Strategy 3. The child and teacher sat on the
delivered a model prompt following an error floor across from each other with a colored mat
(e.g.,thechildsaid,‘‘Thisisrosa,’’whileholding correlated with Strategy 3 between them, and a
a blue crayon). box (25 cm by40 cm by 50 cm) that contained
Strategy 2. Two additions to the procedures relevant toys was next to them. This strategy
outlined for Strategy 1 were included in involved two distinct components; the first was
Strategy 2. First, the teacher provided vocal consistentwithdirectinstruction(teacher-initiat-
prompts to name colors and animals when a ed trials, prompt-delay procedures, and differen-
learning opportunity was initiated (i.e., when tialreinforcement),andthesecondwasconsistent
thechildtouchedatargetitemforthefirsttime with the teaching procedures described for
within a 15-s interval). Second, the teacher Strategy2.Teacher-initiatedlearningopportuni-
provided a model of the correct response ties were conducted in the first component. The
followinganerror andprovidedan opportunity teacher first implemented a 0-s prompt delay,
forthechildtoechothemodel.Whenthechild such that a model of the correct response (e.g.,
initiated a learning opportunity by touching a ‘‘blanco’’) immediately followed the initial
target item such as a red car, in English the prompt (i.e., ‘‘What color is this?’’). The
teacher asked, ‘‘What color is that car?’’ If the prompt-delay schedule then progressed by 1 s
childsaid,‘‘rojo,’’theteacherprovidedpraise;if in each subsequent session (independent of
the child said anything else or did not respond, responding) until a 5-s delay was reached. Three
the teacher provided a model prompt, ‘‘It’s sessions were then conducted at the 5-s delay. If
rojo.’’ There was no explicit instruction to the child did not reach the mastery criterion
imitate the teacher’s model prompt, but when during these sessions, the delay was reset to 0 s
the child did correctly imitate the model, the and progressed on a slower schedule (each delay
teacherprovidedpraise.Whenthechilddidnot wasimplementedfortwosessionsinsteadofone).
correctly imitate the model, the teacher simply During each teacher-initiated learning oppor-
continuedplaying.Ifthechildtouchedasecond tunity,theteacherheldupacolororanimalcard
target item in the same 15-s interval, another and in English asked, ‘‘What color is this?’’
EFFICACY AND PREFERENCE 131
Following a correct response to the initial vocal conducted per day. Session blocks alternated
prompt, the child received praise and two gold between forced choice and free choice. During
tokens. A model of the correct response and an forced-choiceblocks,theexperimenterrandom-
opportunity to echo the model followed errors. ly determined the order of the teaching
Following a correct response to the model strategies; during free-choice blocks, the child
prompt, the child received praise and one gold determined the order. The free-choice blocks
token. Errors following the model prompt were yielded our measure of children’s preference for
ignored, and the next trial was initiated. Each the teaching strategies.
relation was presented to the child twice; thus, On the outside of the session room door,
eight teacher-initiated trials were conducted. there were three colored cards, each of which
When the child answered correctly after the corresponded to one of the teaching strategies.
initial vocal prompt of the first presentation of a
The cards were attached to the door in a row,
relation, that color or animal card was not
and their placement was randomized each
presented again, such that the total number of
session. When the child removed one of the
learning trials was reduced. Therefore, the
colored cards from the door and handed it to
number of teacher-initiated learning opportuni-
theteacher(initiallinkoftheconcurrent-chains
tiesrangedfromfour to eight, dependingon the
arrangement), he or she entered the room to
child’sresponding.Oncethechildreceivedeight
experience the correlated teaching strategy
gold tokens, he or she was allowed to exchange
(terminal link of the chain). At session
them for access to toys in the box (i.e., backup
completion, the teacher informed the child that
reinforcers)thatwas decoratedandreferredtoas
the session was over and instructed the child to
the treasure box. The toys in the treasure box
included the target stimuli for the same color- stand up. The teacher and child left the room
and animal-name relations that were targeted in for approximately 30 to 60 s. During this time
the first component. This second component of theteacherandchildplayedinthehallway(e.g.,
Strategy 3 was then conducted identically to passed a ball to each other, or the child may
Strategy 2 for a period of 4 min. The time have told the teacher a story). These procedures
required to complete the first component of were repeated until the child experienced each
Strategy 3 varied between 30 and120 s depend- of the three teaching strategies, and the session
ingonresponding.Tocalculatethetotaltimeof block was complete. During the forced-choice
Strategy3sessions,thetimerequiredtocomplete blocks, the teacher stood behind or next to the
the first component was added to the 4 min
child and said, ‘‘Hand me the [color] card.’’
requiredforthesecondcomponent.Tokeepthe
These session blocks were arranged to teach the
session time consistent across strategies, the
children the association between selecting a
session times of Strategies 1 and 2 were yoked
particular card and experiencing the correlated
to the time required to conduct the previous
teaching context and to provide evidence of the
Strategy 3 session. For example, if it took 1 min
relative efficacy of the procedures. The main
and 4 min to conduct the first and second
difference between the forced- and free-choice
componentsofaStrategy3session,thefollowing
blocks was that the teacher said, ‘‘Hand me the
sessionsofStrategies1and2wereboth5 minin
card that you would like to do first [next]’’
duration.Toestablishtheyokingprocedure,each
during the free-choice blocks. All of the
assessment started with a Strategy 3 session.
children followed the instruction to remove
Preference Assessment andhandacardtotheteacherduringallsession
As noted above, three distinct sessions made blocks. The teacher delivered a short statement
up a session block, and one session block was of praise following all card selections (i.e., no
132 NICOLE A. HEAL et al.
differential consequences for selecting a partic- therefore, only these session-by-session data
ularcard were providedotherthan access to the are depicted. The other children’s data are
different teaching strategies). In both the summarized in Figure 4 and Table 3.
forced- and free-choice blocks, the selected card
was removed from the array such that fewer Efficacy
cards were present during subsequent selection Figures 1 to 3 depict individual perfor-
opportunities in each session block. mance during the color-name assessments in
Each assessment continued until the child the first columns and the animal-name
reached a mastery criterion in one of the assessments in the second columns. Emma’s
teaching strategies or 90 sessions occurred. responding (Figure 1) was consistent across
The mastery criterion was reached when the both taught relations, with the highest number
child was 100% correct with respect to each of learning opportunities and correct responses
target relation for two nonconsecutive sessions observed in Strategy 3. She did not reach the
or 80% correct with respect to each target mastery criterion in either assessment; there-
relation for three nonconsecutive sessions. fore, both assessments were terminated fol-
lowing the completion of 90 sessions. Jeff
Posttests (Figure 2) experienced more learning oppor-
Four posttests comprised of 48 trials were tunities and emitted the highest number of
conducted with the color- and animal-name correct responses in Strategy 3 during both
relations with all children following completion name-relation assessments. He emitted more
of each assessment. The teacher who conducted correct responses in Strategy 2 sessions during
the efficacy and preference assessments also the animal-name relation assessment than in
conducted two of the posttests. The teacher sat Strategy 2 sessions in the color-name relation
on the floor across from the child and held up assessment. The asterisks above the data points
individual target objects used previously (e.g., denote the sessions in which he met mastery
cars, crayons) and asked, ‘‘What color is this?’’ criterion in Strategy 3 during both assess-
The teacher who conducted the pretests ments. For Lisa (Figure 3), consistent with the
conductedtheothertwoposttests.Sittingacross other children’s data, the highest number of
from the child at a table, the teacher held up learning opportunities was observed in Strat-
one laminated color or animal card at a time egy 3 during both assessments. In addition,
and said, ‘‘What color is this?’’ Both teachers she emitted more correct responses in Strategy
instructed the children to answer in Spanish, 3 than in Strategies 1 and 2 across both name-
and no consequences were delivered following relationassessments.Themasterycriterionwas
correct or incorrect responses. The teachers met in Strategy 3 during the color-name
provided descriptive praise (e.g., ‘‘I like your relation assessment; however, the mastery
shirttoday’’)followingeveryothertrial.Correct criterion was not met during the animal-name
responsesweretallied,andtheresultsofallfour relation assessment.
posttests were added together and divided by Group means (and standard deviations) of
four to obtain a mean posttest score. the efficacy measures are shown in Figure 4.
The mean number of learning opportunities
wasroughlyequivalentbetweenStrategies1and
RESULTS
2 (Ms5 8.3 and8.6learning opportunitiesper
The patterns observed in Emma’s (Figure 1), session, respectively). By contrast, a higher
Jeff’s (Figure 2), and Lisa’s (Figure 3) session- mean number of learning opportunities was
by-session data are most representative of the observed in Strategy 3 (M 5 13.4). Children
patterns observed with the other children; rarely emitted correct responses in the absence
