Table Of ContentJournal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.8, No.2, 2017
An Analysis of Difficulties of Children with Stuttering Enrolled in
Turkish Primary Inclusive Classes Who Encounter in Academic
and Social Activities: From Their Perspectives
Prof. Dr. Hakan SARI* Res. Assist. Hatice Gökdağ
Konya Necmettin Erbakan University , Special Education Department, Turkey
Abstract
Stuttering means that children have difficulties in rhythm, sound, syllable, word and phrase repetitions, or flow
of speech cut in the form of extension or block form. In the International Classification of Diseases (1992) )
(International Classification of Diseases- 10 “ICD-10”), Stuttering was defined as speech disturbances emerging
as a result of repetitions or cut of one sound involuntarily although an individual knows what s/he wants to say.
The number of children with stuttering applied to the Counseling and Research Centre RAM in Turkey due to
speech and language difficulties because of having stuttering was determined as two thousand and nine hundred
and forty six reported with a research carried out by the Turkish Ministry of National Education in schools
(2012). When these children have been classified according to the types of difficulties, it can be seen that
stuttering is 42 percent (42%), rhythm disorder is 36 percent (36%), delayed speech is 16 percent (16%), and
other speech and language difficulties are 6 percent (% 6) (Sarı, 2014). However, in Turkey, there are few studies
related to the difficulties that stuttering children encounter in their academic and social settings. Therefore, the
aim of this study is to determine what kind of difficulties children with stuttering have in primary schools in
Konya province in terms of their academic and social activities. In this research, semi-structured interview
method as one of the qualitative research methods was used because the researcher wanted to receive rich and
detailed information on their difficulties which the children face in academic and social activities. The data were
collected by using semi-structured interview forms developed by the researchers with selected 32 students from
the primary schools. The data collected for this research were analyzed with “Content Analysis Technique”.
According to the results of this research, children with stuttering have considerable difficulties in the interactions
of student and teacher, and student and student. Additionally, it has been observed that children with stuttering
exhibited negative attitudes towards participating social and academic activities or taking part in social activities.
In addition to these, other children have lack of social interaction with those who stutter. This attitude caused
children with stuttering to fall behind in learning concepts and skills during their education.
Keywords: Stuttering, primary school, special education, children with stuttering, Difficulties of Children with
stuttering, effective inclusion, inclusive classes.
Introduction
Communication includes language and speaking and it involves skills that cross with each other. Language is a
mean of this communication; speaking, on the other hand, is the way to convey this mean (Shames, Wiig, 1998).
One of the basic concepts of communication is language; and it provides conveying of experiences and ideas
through verbal symbols and other various symbols. For that reason, language plays an important role in the
communication of human as social being (Öztürk, 2003). Expressing the codes in language in an audible way is
defined as speaking which contains motor procedures needed to produce sounds in oral language. Disruption in
motor procedures that realizes speaking causes speech disorders. These disorders can be observed in respiration,
phonation, resonance and articulation (Topbaş, Konrot and Ege, 2002). Speech disorders contain fluency
disorders and articulation disorders (www.asha.org).The most frequently encountered situation that prevents
communication is stuttering, a disorder of speaking fluently.
1.1. Definition of Stuttering
In International Classification of Diseases (1992) stuttering is defined as disorders in the rhythm of speaking as a
result of interruption or the repetition of the sounds involuntarily, although the person knows what he is going to
say. According to the definition of American Speech Language Hearing Association (ASHA) (1999), stuttering is
a speech disorder which contains repetition of the word partially or wholly, understandable sound extensions and
silent blanks. In addition to this, there are more behaviors (secondary) like avoiding of/escaping from the
symptoms. According to the definition made by American Psychiatry Association (APA) (2000), stuttering is the
breakdown happening in the flow of communication, stopping by the repetition of a word or a sound, extension
of a sound, arrhythmia in speaking which is affected by psychological, neurological and physiological factors in
a meaningful speaking.
Handbook of Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV) (2005) defines
stuttering as repetition of sounds and syllables, extension of sounds, interjection saying the words in pieces,
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
audible or silent blanks, indirect speaking, saying the words with a high tension, repetition of one of the syllables
in a word and disorder in fluency in speaking and timing (Öztürk, 1994; Karacan, 2000). According to DSM-IV
(2005) a person’s speaking inappropriate in his age and disorder in timing and fluency is accepted as the basic
feature of stuttering (Criterion A). These disorders occur as a result of repetition or extension of sounds or
syllables (A1 and A2). Types of non-fluency of speech are categorized as adding words and sounds between
words and sounds (A3), undefined parted words (A4), audible or silent blanks (A5), indirect expressions in order
to change words by abstaining from problematic words (A6), words produced in an extreme physical tension (A7)
and repetition of all one-syllable words (A8). Disorders in fluency affect academic and professional success and
also it prevents the person’s social communication who has fluency problem (ASHA, 1999).
According to Bloodstein (1995), stuttering is the breaking up of the speech fluency or rhythm with
blanks or specific interruptions. Fışıloğlu and Ungan (1992) describe stuttering as having too much uneasiness in
the phase of planning of speech and production, and interruptions in the flow of speech that are not in
accordance with age and level. The most extensive and systematic definition of stuttering is made by Wingate
(1964; cited in Perkins, 1983). Wingate defined stuttering as audible and silent repetition of words and sounds in
the flow of speech, extension of words and sounds, interruption of the speech in an uncontrolled way. He also
mentioned that negative feelings like excitement, distress, fear and anger may accompany with stuttering.
Stuttering is not just a fluency problem observed in speech. Uncontrolled interruptions during speech,
psychological situation that goes along with not fluent speech, personal characteristics and attitudes also have
effects on the individual (Madanoğlu, 2005). Having examined the definitions about stuttering, in order to
describe individuals as stutterer, there should be some criteria. These features are discussed upon the title of
stuttering criteria.
Stuttering criteria are defined as the frequent occurrence of one or more of the symptoms below and
problems in fluency and timing of the speech in DSM IV (2005).
1) Repetition of sounds or words,
2) Frequency in extension of sounds,
3) Interjections,
4) Splitting up words,
5) Audible or silent blanks (interruptions during speaking which can be filled or not),
6) Indirect speech (using different words in order to abstain from problematic words),
7) Saying the words with an extreme physical tension,
8) Repetition of one-syllable words.
9) Speech fluency disorders affect academic and professional success and it prevents social communication,
10) Difficulties in speech may have many causes such as motor or emotional disorders and social problems and
sometimes there may be other reasons.
Although the reasons of stuttering are still not proved, these factors are thought to be possible causes of
speech disorders seen frequently among children; genetic factors, stuttering’s being a learned behavior,
psychological factors and other factors coming together (Maviş, 2005). Depending on all these reasons,
stuttering that causes communication interruptions has been investigated for many years. There are many studies
about starting reason of stuttering, not fluent speech, secondary behaviors of stutterers and stuttering therapies.
In addition to these, there are also several studies about phonological features seen in stutterers, language
development, other disorders accompanying with stuttering, physiological and acoustical characteristics of
stuttering (Yairi and Ambrose, 1993).
When some of the research findings are examined, it is found out that children who are stuttering or
having disorder in fluency have lower language skills than normal speaking children in language tests
(Ryan,1992). According to these results, it can be said that there is a strong relationship between stuttering and
language functions. Despite these findings, there are different hypothesises which emphasize that there is a
complex relationship between stuttering and language functions (Spencer, Packman, Onslow and Ferguson,
2005). There is no agreement on the definition and the reasons of stuttering, for this reason there appeared many
different theories about the reasons of stuttering (Shipley and McAfee, 2004).
Although there are many different theories about reasons of stuttering, there is still no explicit data
about reasons of stuttering (Bloodstein and Ratner, 2008). Theories about reasons of stuttering vary according to
the ideas, thoughts, philosophy and scientific movements popular in that current period. The first theories about
stuttering date back to ancient Greece. According to these theories, the idea of stuttering results from tongue
dryness comes to the forefront. When the theories in the 19th century about the reasons of stuttering are examined,
it can be seen that the idea of stuttering stems from the differences in speech of was defended (Büchel and
Sommer, 2004). There are many theories about the reasons of stuttering, but here these theories are grouped into
four headings; neurotic theories, structural or physiological inadequacy theories, learned behavior theories and
expectation of communication disrupting theories.
2. 4. Theories Explaining the Reasons of Stuttering
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There are many theories about the reasons of stuttering. These theories are grouped into four headings and
explained below.
1.) Neurotic Theories
Neurotic Theories focus on stutterer’s personal characteristics, mood and factors affecting these, social
adaptation and subconscious through observations, interviews and various tests in order to explain the reasons of
stuttering. This theory was shaped by Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalysis ecole. Psychoanalytic studies explained
the times of stuttering with some types of unconscious neurotic needs. According to the theories based on
Freud’s theory, psycho-sexual obsessions lie behind some symptoms and it is asserted that as a result of these
stuttering occurs. Obsessions in speech and speaking arise as a result of the conflicts occurring in early periods
such as meeting the baby’s special psychological needs like oral and anal erotism, trust, aggressiveness, self-
assertion. The source of these problems are conflicts between child and parents, mother’s weaning early during
childcare, early toilet training, parental pressure or parents’ own neurotic conflicts (Bloodstein,1995;
Güleryüz,1995; Fenichel,1945).
Psychoanalytic explanations about stuttering are more common in the very beginning of the century. It
is mentioned that stuttering is the way of pleasing the needs of oral and anal erotic needs and it is an expression
of suppression and also it represents the unconscious need of suppressing the speech (Andrews and others, 1983).
When child and adult face with anxiety, anger, being prevented, abstaining from speaking in social
environment, they confront with negative feelings. The reasons lying behind them are psychological factors and
they are thought to cause stuttering. On the other hand, it is revealed with the studies that stutterers do not have
specific personal characteristics making them different from normal people (Kehoe, 1996).
In order to prove that stutterers have neurological problems with other individuals and especially
parents, many studies were conducted; however none of them proved strongly that stutterers have neurological
problems. As Glow and Glow (1980; cited in Andrews and others, 1983) stated stuttering is not a neurotic
syndrome. It does not form a group with other behavioral problems and it differs from emotional disorders in
children. According to other studies, both stutterers and their parents do not have a different neurology, they are
like normal people (Andrews and others, 1983). In the studies carried out to define personal characteristics of
stutterers and their parents, it is reported that stuttering children are shier, less self-confident, more silent than
normal children; they also abstain from verbal communication (Anderson, 1967; cited in Bloodstein, 1995); they
are not good at interpersonal relationships, which reflects that they are unhappy, self-enclosed and anxious
(Belgin and Derinsu, 1990; Kerimoğlu, 1985; Pamir, 1985); they may need more adult approval (Meyers and
Freeman, 1985b); they may evaluate themselves negatively (Tuncer, 1985); they may have low sense of self
(Çağlar, 1993). Moncur (1952) argues that parents of stuttering children are extremely oppressive, critical; they
are extremely tend to discipline their children and criticize them (Moncur 1952; cited in Van Riper, 1971).
According to another study, it is asserted that parents of stuttering children have secret rejectionist approach
towards their children when compared with normal childrens’ parents (Kinstler, 1961; cited in Van Riper, 1971).
To sum up, these theories in this group dating back to more than fifty years define stuttering as satisfying oral
and anal needs and suppressed feelings of enemy. Yet, these theories do not have scientific support in today’s
world (Topbaş and others, 2011).
2. Structural or Physiological Inadequacy Theories
There are many studies (West, 1958; Wingate, 1969) done to examine physiological functions about reasons of
stuttering, so as a result many different structural theories came into being. Many of those theories explaining
stuttering structurally emphasize that stutterers are not having enough physiological capacity to coordinate their
speeches which cause stuttering (Andrews and others, 1983). Structural theories can be handled in three
categories; organic-genetic theory, bio-chemical- physiological theory and neurologic theory.
In Orton’s (1927) and Travis’s (1931) ‘’Cerebral Dominance’’ theory, stuttering results from both
flocculus’ not being dominant and their competing with each other in controlling the speech organs. This
situation hinders time of stimulus coming from brain and interrupts speaking. As Bloodstein (1995), Andrews
and others (1983) stated one of the flocculus should be dominant for a fluent speech. Freeman and Ushijima
(1978) asserted that stuttering stems from coordination problems and tension of the assistant organs in larynx.
Individuals use these assistant organs in larynx in a wrong way and with the problems in larynx and oral
structures stuttering may occur.
Researchers (Pınarcık and Sarı, 2013) who view stuttering as a breakdown in speech functions, think
that an organic failure may exist in the basis of stuttering. According to these views, stuttering may result from
genetic factors, and genetic tendency may change in accordance with the environmental factors. Studies based on
genetics like sex, being twins and heredity may make someone think that genetics may be an effective factor in
the occurence of stuttering (Kidd, 1983). In genetics based studies it is stated that stuttering may be seen more
often in boys than girls, and also if there is a stuttering one in the family, the probability (Pınarcık and Sarı, 2013)
of occurrence of stuttering is higher (Bloodstein and Ratner, 2008). As a result of studies carried out with twins,
stuttering is being affected by environmental factors in the rate of 15% and 30%; but genetic tendency is
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effective in stuttering in the rate of 70% and 85% (Howell, 2007). Andrew’s (1990) study done with randomly
selected 3810 twins supports this proportion. According to this study, stuttering results from environmental
factors in the ratio of 29%, and genetic factors in the ratio of 71% (Peters and Guitar, 1991).
There is a big difference between secondary and high school children who have stutterers in their
family and who do not have stutterers in their families in view of motor speaking skills and frequency of audible
and silent extension (Janssen, Kraaimat and Bratten, 1990). Andrews and others (1983) stated that people who
have stuttering relatives are under risk of being a stutterer three times more than normal people. This risk varies
in accordance with the related person’s gender. In most of the cases, although there are findings that correlate
with heredity, intensity of stuttering is not hereditary.
According to the bio-chemical and physiological theories, in speaking disorder and interruption neuro-
muscular regulation necessary for normal speech, smoothness, speed of speech, psychological tension of
speaking including anxiety and emotions are thought to affect stuttering (Bloodstein, 1995). Neuro-psychology,
brain wave, blood chemical and basal metabolism researches done related to stuttering are effective in arousal of
this theory. In 1929 Samuel Orton and Lee Travis presented neuro-physiological model related to reasons of
stuttering. According to this model named ‘Insufficient Cerebral Dominance’, stuttering results from person’s
uncompleted floccules dominance. Orton and Travis (1929) who handles studies about stuttering in a different
way put forward Insufficient Cerebral Dominance Theory. According to this theory, it is asserted that speech
mechanism should regulate nerve pulses received from right and left hemisphere of the brain in order to carry
out speech simultaneously, so this bears the necessity of the dominance of each hemisphere over each other. In
stutterers, it can be observed that this dominance is not mature enough (Manning, 2001).
Stutterers are mostly left handed and they have difficulty in writing with right hand; this situation
revealed that left hemisphere of the brain is not dominant in these people like in normal people and it causes
problems in coordination between voice, pronunciation, respiration and muscle and aero-dynamic structures and
for this reason it is claimed that stuttering occurs. Using left hand is generally accepted as an effective factor in
stuttering. Therefore, left-handed child’s having difficulty in using his right hand may be effective factor in
occurrence of stuttering (Belgin, 1985).
3. Learning and Conditioning Theories
According to these theories, stuttering is explained with Behaviorism; learning, motivation, stimulus and
reinforcement are focused upon. According to learning and behaviorist theories, stuttering is accepted as a
learned behavior. When child’s disorders in speech fluency are remarked by the people around, stuttering is
reinforced (Cangi, 2008). Similarly, according to Communication Failure Theory, stuttering occurs if the child
experiences fear and being unsuccessful while trying to speak (Bloodstein, 1993, Sadock and Ruiz, 2009).
Based on the theory of classical conditioning theory presented by Wolpe (1950), it can be stated that
interruption occurring during speaking due to any reason may cause the person to be anxious about her speech. If
this situation happens often, there may be a classical conditioning towards stuttering (cited in Shames and others,
1990). According to Steehan (1958) stuttering is a conflict of converging-avoiding. This theory suggests that
stuttering occurs as a result of the conflict between willingness to speak (tendency to converge) and restraining
from speaking (tendency to avoid). In the basis of this theory, if converging tendency is dominant, the person
speaks fluently; if avoiding tendency is dominant the person cannot speak and cannot stay silent; however if both
tendencies are equal, the person stutters and can have problems in fluency (Bloodstein, 1993). According to
Demands and Capacities Model, when the child could not meet the speech demand of society, stuttering and
fluency disorders can occur (Starkweather, 1993; Shapiro, 1999). It is reported that the speech fluency
performance expected from the child by the society results in stuttering if the child is not mature enough in view
of cognitive, linguistic, motor and affective skills (Starkweather, 1993; Shapiro, 1999)
1. 5. Stuttering in Turkey
According to a study carried out in Turkey stuttering is the most frequently seen speech disorder (19%). Since
the studies about speech disorders were started to be done, stuttering has received more attention than other
speech disorders (Topbaş, Konrot and Ege, 2002). In a study carried out by the Ministry of Education in
academic year 2012, it is revealed that the number of people applying to Counseling and Research Center
(RAM) because of speech disorders is 2946. When these applications are categorized, 42% of them are
pronunciation disorders, 36% of them are rhythm disorders, 16% of them are belated speech, 6% of them are
other speech disorders (Sarı, 2014).
Maviş ve Topbaş (2005) indicated in their study that the number of cases applied to DILKOM with
diagnosis of language and speech disorders (Language and Speech Disorders Training, Research and Application
Center) is 774. The most frequently language and speech disorders are observed pronunciation disorders
(30.7 %). In addition to these, 24.5% of them are stutterers and 23.6% of them have belated language and speech
disorders.
In a screening model based on study carried out by Ertaş (1990) in Ankara with 1973 children at
primary school level, it is reported that fluency disorders rise as the child grows older and in these disorders girls
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
form ¼ of the group, the remaining proportion is formed by boys. In another study conducted at Ankara
University, Medical Faculty, Child’s Mental Health Department with 452 children, it is stated that stuttering
occurs in the rate of 4.38% (Öztürk, 2004). In conclusion, prevalence of stuttering in societies over the world is
between 1% and 5% (Yairi and Ambrose, 2005a; Guitar, 2006; Bloodstein and Ratner, 2008).
In this study, difficulties that stuttering students face in their academic and social life are tried to be evaluated
based on their own thoughts; by this way it is thought that the study will give a different point of view to the
field.
Aim
The aim of this study is to determine the difficulties with which the stuttering students at the level of primary
school encounter in the academic classes and social environments.
2. Method
The information about the study method, study group, data collection tools and data analysis is presented in this
section of the study.
2.1. Study Method
The study is a descriptive research for finding out the stuttering students’ opinions related to the academic and
social problems that they suffer from in the primary school. In this study, qualitative research method was chosen
in order to be able to more deeply examine the stuttering students’ ideas about the academic and social problems
that they encounter. The main aim of the qualitative researches is that the feelings and opinions related to the
research problem of the study group participating in the study are found out. The purpose of the fact that the
qualitative research is used be ableto obtain deeper and more detailed information from the chosen study group
(Yıldırım and Şimşek, 2006).
In this study, the semi-structured interview method among the Qualitative Research methods was
chosen, because according to Karasar (2010), the interview is one of the data collection (examination) technique
by means of oral communication. Tavukçuoğlu (2002) reported that it is a set of questions which are asked to
the subjects by the researcher to get an answer on condition that the interview is performed by word of mouth
and face to face. This study was developed according to the semi-structured interview method among the types
of interview. In the semi-structured interview method, the researcher prepares the interview protocol that
includes the questions which the researcher wants to ask ahead of time. However, the researcher may affect the
interview flow with separate random or sub-questions depending upon the going of the interview and the
researcher may tell the subject to be more specific about the answer and may direct them to explicate the answers
(Türnüklü, 200). The semi-structered interview technique provides a big convenience to the researcher because it
provides systematic and comparable information due to the maintenance of the previously prepared protocol
(Yıldırım ve Şimşek, 2004).
2.2. Study Group
The study group of is research consists of the stuttering students in the primary schools in Meram and Karatay
Towns affiliated to Konya Provincial Directorate for National Education.
The stuttering students participating in the research were selected by the researcher by visiting the
schools one by one and then contacting with the school head teachers and counseling services. The primary
school 1-4th grade 78 students who were diagnosed as stuttering were determined and after that, a list of students
were prepared considering the accessibility of the students. Then, the stuttering students who take place in first
32 students of this list and have separate socioeconomic levels were taken to the scope of the study by means of
random technique. The stuttering students participating in the study were told that they did not have to
participate in the study and the study was based on the principle of the voluntarism. In other words, the
participants accepted their participation voluntarily.
Figure 1: The Number and Class Levels of the Students Participating in the Study
Central 1st Gerade 2 Gerade 3th Gerade 4thGerade
Countie F M F M F M F M
Meram 1 1 1 3 1 2 2 -
Karatay 1 1 2 3 2 4 1 -
2.2.1. The Demographic Information of the Students Participating in the Study
When considering the genders of the students that were taken into the scope of the study, it was understood that
two third of the students (21: 68%) were males and the rest (11:32%) were females. Two boys and two girls of
the students participating in the study are still 1st grade, three girls and six boys of them are still 2nd grade, three
girls and six boys of them are still 3nd grade and three girls and seven boys of them are still 4th grade students.
The students stated that they were treated in stuttering-focused hospitals and they are still being treated because
they were suffering from the stuttering. In total, 32 students, 11 of whom were girls and 21 of whom were boys,
participated in the study. When considering the mother and father of the students, it was noticed that the parents
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
were natural and still alive. It is seen that more than half of the mothers (18:50%) graduated from high schools
and more than a few of them (5:10%) graduated from university. When thinking the educational status of the
students’ fathers participating in the study, that more than two third of the fathers graduated from high schoosl
and university and one of them is still doing master degree. It was also realized that there was a stuttering person
in the families of two students participating in the study.
Figure 2: The Demographic Information of the Students Participating in the Study
Gender Female: 11 Male: 21
Mother-Father Natural: 32 Step Alive: 32 Dead
Status
Educational status of Primary Secondary High University: 5 Master’s
Mother School: 2 School: 7 School: 16 Degree: 0
Educational status of Father Primary Secondary High University: Master’s
School: 1 School: 4 School: 13 13 Degree: 1
Any Stammering Person in Yes: 2 No: 30
the Family
If yes, Degree of Kinship Mother Father: x Sibling Relative: x
2.3. Data Collection Tools
In the study, the data were gathered by using of Semi-Structured Interview Method. which were developed by
the researchers and the forms were applied in this study:
As the first stage, the in interview form, which was gathered under four main titles for determining the
difficulties that the students encounter due to the stuttering in the academic and social environments, was
developed.
The interview forms had been examined by three specialists who experienced on the qualitative
researches and after that, the article statements were revised in accordance with the opinions and feedbacks
received from the specialists. The forms, which were revised and the statements of the form were changed and
the form was sent to the specialists for revision again.
The questions in the interview form were asked to three students for the pilot study and some
adjustments were taken place by asking about the incomprehensible questions again.
1.) The three experienced specialists examined the interview questions in the qualitative researches again in
order to make the incomprehensible questions more understandable.
2.) The semi-structured interview forms that were observed and acepted as the form which was ready fort he
main study were put into the form as they were in the study.
To the students participating in the interview:
1.) Whether they encounter difficulties in the academic classes
2.) What kind of difficulties they encounter
3.) What kind of difficulties they encounter in the Painting class, Music and Physical Education
4.) What kind of difficulties they encounter in the social activities organized in the schools.
2.4. Analysis of Data
The interviews were completed, the voice recordings belonging to the interviews performed with the
participants were analyzed and after that, the data in the interview form were put in writing and the interview
coding keys were created evaluating them one by one. The chosen one of the performed interviews was
evaluated by one of the researchers and one specialist separately according to the interview coding keys. With
the purpose of determining the consistency, the coding keys were put into the final form by making necessary
alterations after the markings made by the researcher and specialists in the coding keys were compared. The
coding keys, which were filled by the researchers and specialists for the participant students, were compared
with the intent of ensuring the consistency. By computing reliability of the studies, the formula of ‘’
Communion/ Communion + Dissensus’’ was applied. The communion/ communion arose through all the
questions in the Semi-Structured Interview Form used in this study.
3. Findings
In this section of the study, the primary school students’ opinions concerned with the difficulties they encounter
due to the stuttering in the academic classes, Painting class, Music and Physical Education and in the social
activities were showed. The problems that the stuttering students suffer from were basically analyzed within the
frame of four main themes. Those themes; the problems they encounter in the academic classes, the problems
they encounter in the art classes, the problems they encounter in the social activities of school.
3.1. The Difficulties That The Students Encounter in the Academic Classes Due To Stammering
In this section, the students' opinions concerned with the difficulties that they encounter in the courses of Turkish
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
Language, Math, Social Studies, Social Science and Science are provided.
3.1.1. The Difficulties That They Encounter in the Course of Turkish Language
All of the students participating in the study (32: 100%) stated that they have difficulties in oral reading. They
said that they had difficulties in pronouncing the words; they could not start even reading and could not read the
words properly when teachers told them to read the texts orally. The reason for that they get excited extremely
and they are afraid of being ashamed among their friends due to stammering. The following parts of the students’
opinions below reflect the situation.
‘’I keep the door of my room closed at home. In my room, I can read texts loudly without any obstacle,
as I would like. But it does not happen the same in the school. I do not feel myself well there, not comfortable. It
is so as though something was insisting on me not to read. I get very excited (The student: 2)’’.
‘’When my teacher gets me to read texts, I just get excited. I read the words inside me, but I cannot read
them orally due to stammering (The student: 11)’’.
‘’I cannot read any story in the classroom. I feel excited. And when I get excited once, I have more
difficulty in reading (The student: 17)’’.
‘’I have difficulty especially in the course of Turkish Language. My friends read very fluently though. I
just get locked while reading and cannot read well due to stammering. I feel myself bad in front of my friends. I
tell myself ‘’ Correct yourself man !’’. But when it comes to reading in the classroom, I get excited again. Then I
do not want to read among my friends not to fall into disgrace ( The student: 25)’’.
Those students said that they did not stammer too much especially in the short texts on which they had
already worked at home and they could read the short sentences more comfortably. The students’ opinions
reflecting this situation are given below.
‘’Sometimes my teacher gives me homework of reading. I work on it at home. Then I do not stammer
too much because I work on it at home (The student: 15)’’.
‘’I get very excited while reading long sentences and i stammer much more. When the sentences are
short, it is better. I do not stammer much (The student: 3)’’.
As a reason why the students have stammering problem with oral reading in the classroom, the students
said that they get very excited and then they stammer much more. As a result of it, the students get restricted in
terms of holding the floor, participating in the class and communication with other individuals and their
psychosocial developments are affected.
‘’When teacher tells me to read texts in the classroom, I get very excited. When I get excited, I stammer
much more and nobody understands what I say. My friends laugh at me. After that, I get very shy and then I do
not want to talk to anyone (The student:4)’’.
‘’I do not raise my hand in the class. I get very excited because I stammer. I actually know the answer
of the question that the teacher asks, but maybe my friends think that I do know the answer of the questions (The
student: 23)’’.
3.1.2. The Problems That They Encounter in the Course of Math
Approximately two third of the students participating in the study said that they do not have much difficulty in
the Math class. The students said that they do not have to speak much in Math and they do not have difficulties
as much as they have in the course of Turkish Language because the Math course is based upon operations
instead of speaking. The quotations of the students’ opinions support the consequence.
‘’I show my teacher the operations that I do in Math. When they are right, I do the operations on the
blackboard. When they are not right, I do not do them on the blackboard. I do not have to speak. I do not have
problem with the Math course (The student: 4)’’.
‘’I do not have great difficulty in the Math class. I love Math. We solve Math problems and do Math
operations. I show the teacher the problem after I solve it. Then I do not have to speak much. One day, the
teacher asked a question in the classroom and nobody could make it except for me. Then I felt myself very well.
My self-confidence increased (The student: 29)’’.
One third of the students (9:35%) participating in the study stated that they had stammering problem in
the course of Math. The stammering problem affects the students in terms of psychosocial as well. The students
mostly avoid answering even the questions the answer of which they already know and they do not now
participate in the classes and activities because they have worries due to stammering. This situation affects the
academic successes of the students. The quotations of the students’ opinions reflecting this situation are
presented below.
‘’My teacher asks a question. My classmates, Ali, Ahmet solve the question and they do the operation
of the question on the blackboard by raising the hands. I cannot do though. Even though I solve the question, I
cannot raise my hand because i am afraid of stammering while doing the question. I do not raise my hand ( The
student: 21)’’.
‘’I do not ever raise my hand in the Math class. If I raise my hand in the Math class, my teacher will tell
me to do the question on the blackboard. Therefore, I feel afraid of stammering and I do not raise my hand
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
because I may fall into disgrace in front of my friends ( The students: 7)’’.
‘’Teacher makes us solve questions in the Math class. The teacher tells the ones doing the question to
do the question on the blackboard. I do not raise my hand. I can sometimes manage to solve the question,
sometimes cannot. Even though I solve the question, I do not raise my hand. The teacher might tell me to go to
the blackboard and I can stammer by getting excited. When it comes to solving the question, I might have to
explain the question. I can get locked with the question and get shy (The student: 31)’’.
3.1.3. The Difficulties That They Encounter in the Courses of Social Studies/ Social Science/ Science
Almost all of the students participating in the study stated that they do not encounter great difficulties in the
courses of Social studies, Social science and Science. The reason why the students do not go through any
problem in those classes is that the students do not do any oral reading. They pointed out that they do not
encounter any stammering problem because the teacher-centered trainings are done in the classroom, they do not
do any momentary reading, the teacher teaches the lessons and makes students write from the blackboard and
they do not have to speak much. The quotations of the students’ opinions reflecting this situation are presented
below.
‘’I do not have a great difficulty in the class of Social Studies and Science. I do not read the texts in the
books. I sometimes read just the ones that i wrote on my own. Therefore, I do not have a great difficulty in
reading. (The student: 22)’’.
‘’I do not go through any problem in the classes of Science and Social Studies. We do not read too
much. The teacher writes on the blackboard and we write down from the blackboard. Due to the fact that we do
not read too much in those classes, I feel myself more comfortable. The teacher lets the students read when they
raise their hands. I do not raise the hand in case I stammer (The students: 31)’’.
From the point of the students’ opinions, the reason why the students do not go through any problem
due to stammering in the courses of Social Studies, Social Science and Science is that they do not participate in
the class actively. The students do not participate in the activities organized in those classes and they prefer to be
listener during the classes instead. Thus, they avoid the situations with which they might encounter due to
stammering in those classes. This fact causes the students to remain in the back during the academic classes. The
quotations of the students’ opinions reflecting this situation are showed below.
‘’In the course of Social Studies, teacher sometimes makes us read texts. Usually the teacher teaches
lessons himself. The teacher lets the students raising the hands read though. When he asks questions, the students
raise the hands as well. I do not raise my hand. Although I know the answer of the question that the teacher asks,
I still do not raise the hand, hence, he does not ask me question. I feel shy in case I stammer and I do not give
answer to the questions although I know the answer (The student: 15)’’.
3.1.4. The Problems That They Go Through in the Courses of Painting, Music And Physical Education
All of the students participating in the study (32: 100%) expressed that they do not have any
stammering problem in the course of Music. They stated that they feel themselves comfortable in such activities
as singing song and fluting, hence, they do not go through any problem due to stammering. They also said that
they sing song accompanied by music in a definite rhythm, so they do not encounter any trouble due to
stammering by singing song. Because of the fact that the students do not go through nay trouble due to
stammering by singing song and fluting, they do not feel themselves different than others and their self-
confidence increases. Thus, this situation has a positive effect on their success of the classes and their
psychosocial developments. The sections of the students’ opinions reflecting this situation are showed below.
‘’We sing song and play flute in the Music class. I never stammer while singing song and I do not have
any problem with that. I feel myself comfortable (The student: 8)’’.
‘’I do not stammer while singing song in the Music class. I love singing song. I did see a doctor and the
doctor told me to sing songs and read poems all the time, I sing song a lot. It might be the reason (The student:
17)’’.
‘’I can sing song like my friends without any stammering in the Music class. I like it. I can make it like
them without stammering (The student: 20)’’.
Almost all of the participant students (31: 99%) pointed out that they do not have any stammering
problem in the Painting course. The students said that they get comfortable while painting and they do not
encounter any stammering problem due to the fact that there is not too much to require speaking. The students’
opinions reflecting this consequence are below.
‘’We get relaxed by painting in the Painting class. We do not have to speak much and I do not have any
difficulty (The student: 29)’’.
‘’I can draw very good picture. My teacher likes the pictures that I draw. Sometimes the teacher puts
my pictures on the wall and I just get happy. I love the Painting course (The student: 19)’’.
Three of the students participating in the study (3: 10%) stated that they have difficulties in drawing
picture due to physically attack and they fail in the activities which require motor skill due to unwilled attack.
The students’ opinions reflecting the situation are below.
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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online)
Vol.8, No.2, 2017
‘’My hand sometimes moves suddenly. Thus, I cannot draw picture very well. Because I cannot control
the pencil properly, my pictures are not beautiful (The student: 10)’’.
All of the participant students pointed out that they do not go through any stammering problem in the
class of Physical Education. They told that they get relaxed because they have such physical activities as football,
playing ball and running and they have less stammering problem thanks to feeling comfortable. They also stated
that they feel themselves good because they encounter less stammering problem. Some of the students’ opinions
reflecting this situation are presented below.
‘’I do not encounter any difficulty in the course of Physical Education. We play ball, we run and we do
not have to speak much (The student: 1)’’.
‘’I do not have any difficulty in the class of Physical Education. Because the hobby of all the boys is
football, we do not have any problem with that and we play football match (The student: 32)’’.
3.1.5. The Problems That They Encounter in the Social Activities Organized in the School
All of the students (32: 100%) participating in the study said that they had never involved in the social activities,
competitions and ceremonies organized in the school and they do not want to get involved in those activities
either. As reason why they do not want to get involved in the social activities organized in the school, the
students said that they had never got involved in those activities and they still do not want to get involved in
them because they are afraid of stammering by speaking and they feel uncomfortable in case they fall into
disgrace in front of their friends and teachers. They are also afraid of being made fun of. That those students do
not get involved in such social activities due to stammering have a negative effect on the psychosocial
developments of them and it prevents the students from the development of taking responsibility in the social
activities and performing those responsibilities. It also causes the idea of inadequacy, which decreases the self-
confidence of the students. The students’ opinions showed below reflect the situation.
‘’There sometimes happens poem competition in the school. I do not participate in the competition. I
get excited and stammer in front of my friends. I cannot read. I feel ashamed in front of the whole school. Thus, I
do not want to join the poem competition (The student: 11)’’.
‘’I never participate in social activities in the school and I do not want to. My teacher told me to
participate once but I did not want to participate. I stammer, I cannot speak comfortably, I get excited. I do not
want to be ashamed in front of my friend. Then I feel very shy. Therefore, I do not participate in the activities
(The student: 15)’’.
‘’If I participate, other students will understand that I stammer by speaking and they will make fun of
me. I do not want to participate in activities (The student: 5)’’.
3. 1. 6. The Suggestions for the Solution of the Difficulties Encountered in the School
More than half of the participant students (21: 66 %) stated that they enjoy activities related to sports, they are
good at such activities as football, volleyball and wrestling, hence, they feel themselves better, there happens a
growth in their self-confidence and they have better communication with friends. That the number of those
activities, which the students are good at and they feel themselves good with, increases helps to the students with
their psychosocial developments and growth of their self-confidence. The students’ opinions supporting this
consequence are presented below.
‘’There used to be organized wrestling in the sports club of the school last year. I participated in
wrestling, too. Our teacher was saying to me that I was good at wrestling. I loved wrestling. I want that those
activities are performed in our school again. Those activities are good for such stammering students as me.
While doing sport, there is no need speaking much and therefore nobody understands that I stammer. I have
better time with my other friends (The student: 25)’’.
‘’I love playing football. If there was a football team at the school, I would join them. I am very good at
playing football. Whether I stammer or not is not understood because I do not have to speak much. I feel myself
very good with my friends while playing football (The student: 9)’’.
Two third of the participant students (21: 66%) told that they wanted that there would be a course for
such stammering students like me in the school. As a reason for that, they pointed out that they would feel
themselves better with their friends that have the same stammering problem and they would put across their
ideas comfortably without any fear of being made fun of. The statement of the student supports the situation
below.
‘’My teacher! There should be organized a course for such stammering students as me in the school. I
would get less excited among the students having the same stammering problem. They stammer like I do and
they would not make fun of me. The teachers can teach us how to speak without stammering. There used to be a
course last year but we did not do too much, not many students participate in the course (The student: 27)’’.
More than half of the participant students (17: 53%) stated that they have less stammering problem by
reading poem and text in the classroom when they prepare for them previously and they also said that it would
be helpful for the stammering students to get over the excitement, hence, they would stammer less if they
prepared for the home works like poems at home.
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Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org
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Vol.8, No.2, 2017
They said that they would like their teachers to support them more. The students’ opinions supporting
the situation are below.
‘’My teacher sometimes gives me poem homework. I learn poem by heart at home. Then I do not get
very excited and I stammer less while reading the poem in the classroom. As a result, I feel very happy because I
read without stammering (The student: 8).’’
‘’When teacher gives me oral reading homework, i work on them by reading loudly. I sometimes study
with my mother. I do not stammer too much when I study on them previously at home ( The student: 13).’’
Two third of the students (21: 66%) participating in the study pointed out that they would like their
teachers to be more empathetic against them in the classroom and school and to warn other students making fun
of them about stammering students. When the students want to take responsibilities in the classroom, they
would like their teacher to decide on it. It causes more excitement and stammering of the students when the
teacher tells them to read random texts or answer the questions. The students’ opinions reflecting the situation
are presented below.
‘’I get very excited and stammer a lot when teacher tells me to read text even though I do not raise my
hand. When I stammer, some of my friends laugh at me and I get very shy then. When I want to answer the
question by raising the hand myself, I do not stammer too much. I wish my teacher let me read when I raise my
hand (The student: 3).’’
‘’When teacher asks me question, I cannot answer it due to excitement although I know the answer and
I stammer too much. Sometimes I raise my hand when the teacher asks question. When I myself want to answer
the question, I answer it comfortably and I stammer not too much ( The student: 14).’’
4. Discussion
In this section of the study, the consequences resulting from the opinions, which are concerned with the
difficulties that the primary school stammering students encounter in the academic courses; Painting, Physical
Education and Music classes and in the social activities in the school, are discussed.
According to the results of this research, that the rate of stammering incidence differs in terms of gender
and that the number of the stammering boys is more than the stammering girls are concluded. In this study, the
number of the girl students is eleven whereas the number of the boy students is twenty one. The rate of the boy
and girl students participating in the study reflects their opinions presented above. For example; the study of
Bloodstein (1995) supports this research result. According to Bloodstein (1995), gender factor has an important
feature in understanding speech disorder and in finding out specific aspects of childhood stammering.
Regarding this study findings, it is concluded that the students mostly have stammering problem in the
verbal lessons, especially Turkish Language, from the academic classes. It has been realized that the students
have less stammering problem while reading poems or texts which consist of short sentences and on which they
study before. However it has been noticed that there is a growth in the stammering problem while reading texts
which have long sentences. Examining the body of literature, the studies supporting the research consequence
are reached. It is stated in the study of Starkweather (2002) that length of sentences has an important effect on
stammering.
It is concluded that the stammering students do not go through any problem in the academic classes in
terms of success, but, due to stammering and insufficient self-confidence, the students’ success rates in verbal
lessons and activities are less than other classes and activities. Travis (1959) found out through his study that
intelligence level of the stammering students is meaningfully higher than normal intelligence level (stated by
Bloodstein, 1997).
One of the research consequences is that the stammering students do not encounter any problem in the
courses of Painting, Music and Physical Education and that they feel themselves comfortable and safe in those
classes. Santastefano (1960) suggested in his study that stammering students evaluate themselves negatively;
they have the idea that their friends think the same about them and they go through feeling of individual
inadequacy. According to the results obtained from the study, the stammering students have the feeling of
individual inadequacy in the academic courses and social activities. In contrast to it, the feeling of individual
inadequacy of the stammering students is less in the classes of Painting, Physical Education and Music; they do
not encounter stammering problem thanks to less communication and therefore they feel themselves better.
Another result obtained from the study is that anxiety level of the stammering students is high. The
stammering students’ ideas that they will stammer by speaking or people around the students will think about
them negatively increases fear of exclusion, insulation, making fun and anxiety level. Fletcher (1914) regards the
stammering as an abnormal social reaction in his study. He emphasized that main factors resulting in attitudes
regarded as abnormal in terms of social aspects are mood events that happen in the result of fear, dread, anxiety
and inferiority complexes (stated by Wischner, 1972).
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