Table Of ContentVolume 10, Issue 1, 2016 [PERSPECTIVES]
E S M S
MPOWERING TUDENTS TO AKE ENSE
I -S W
OF AN NFORMATION ATURATED ORLD
The evolution of Information Searching and Analysis
James H. Wittebols How well students conduct research online is
University of Windsor an increasing concern for educators at all
levels, especially higher education. This paper
describes the evolution of a course that
examines confirmation bias, information
searching, and the political economy of
information as keys to becoming more
information and media literate. After a key
assignment in which students assess their own
tendency to engage in confirmation bias,
students research a social justice issue across
web, news and academic research resources.
Designed to build good analytical skills in
assessing the trustworthiness of a variety of
sources of information, the course empowers
students as researchers, citizens and
consumers.
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INTRODUCTION course draw upon the educational
philosophy of Paulo Friere, whose work
Information literacy has become a buzz focused on helping illiterate Brazilians
phrase of the new century. Thirty years of become critical citizens and agents (Friere,
digital technology development have made 1970; Shor, 1980). His method helps
searching for information decidedly easy. students work through the social
The results of the searching, however, often contradictions that foster social injustice and
leave much to be desired. This paper will inequality. Friere gets students to question
detail how a course focused on information the given state of affairs about their lives
literacy was devised and implemented. and helps them look at their situation in a
new way. It is a “fish out of water”
Several years ago, I began to see problems discovery process wherein a fish that has
only experienced water as a living
with how students used information
gathered online. I came up with a unit in my environment discovers there are other ways
to live in the world. The “fish out of water”
Sociology of the News Media course that
focused on how to judge the integrity of a is experiencing cognitive dissonance
news website. While that assignment (Festinger, 1964), a situation in which a
seemed helpful, I sensed that there were person’s worldview is disrupted by new
some larger issues involved that meant I information which contradicts or supplants
needed to work further into how students do the current view. An individual
research electronically in order to get them experiencing this dissonance can deal with it
to do their research more critically. in one of two ways: reject the new source
of information and reinforce the existing
The larger issues involved human curiosity, worldview, or weigh the truth value of the
a misplaced faith in search engines, and our competing viewpoints and determine if the
propensity to engage in confirmation bias. closely-held views should be revised. The
“Confirmation bias” is the term used for our former we have identified as confirmation
tendency to be psychologically invested in bias, which does not challenge the reader to
the familiar and in what we already believe, resolve the contradiction. The latter
and to be less receptive to information that approach is more demanding on learners,
contradicts what we believe (Nickerson, but opens the possibility of changing one’s
1998). The multi-layered problems related views.
to the idea of information literacy ultimately
led to the realization that a full course was Friere is very salient with regard to a more
necessary. Information literacy is not just a critical approach to cognitive dissonance.
matter of mechanics, but also involves Rather than teachers depositing their
understanding the importance of cognitive knowledge in students (which he calls
banking education), he sees education more
dissonance and the problem of confirmation
bias as integral elements in helping students as a dialog between students and teachers,
become better able to sort out information where teachers play a facilitating role in
that is reliable and trustworthy. helping students discover and analyze the
social world. Friere is mindful of the
The theoretical elements behind this new process by which people change their
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worldview when discovering a new source people’s adaptation of the Internet in their
of information. Employing confirmation lives. The researchers presented two
bias to “resolve” the contradiction is the opposing scenarios for how young people
easy, if lazy, approach individuals tend to will use the Internet in the future. Briefly,
engage in without being fully aware of the first scenario was the optimistic one—
doing so. The challenge to educators is to young people would not suffer notable
disrupt that process by having students cognitive shortcomings. They would be able
confront their tendency to think deeply,
to engage in successfully multitask,
confirmation bias THE INSTANTANEOUS search effectively, and
without an authority access collective
NATURE OF DIGITIZED
figure preaching at intelligence. The
them. This practice INFORMATION PRESENTS second scenario was
allows them to confront AN ILLUSION OF UBIQUITY more pessimistic—
their own worldview young people would
AND RELIABILITY AND
and moves them to have difficulty
critically engage new GIVES STUDENTS A SENSE retaining information;
information in a way spend energy on short
OF KNOWING ABOUT THE
that might result in a messages and
change of WORLD THAT CAN BORDER entertainment; lack face
consciousness. By ON DELUSION. -to-face skills; and
confronting their depend on technology
tendency to preserve in unhealthy ways.
their closely-held beliefs individually,
students are much freer to change their The researchers posed these scenarios to a
minds and to deal with new information in a carefully selected set of experts on youth
less dismissive manner. The relationship and technology. While 55% agreed with the
between confirmation bias and cognitive optimistic scenario, 42% were more
dissonance applies in two ways in the pessimistic. Of the optimists, many
course Information Searching and Analysis. recognized that their view was more of an
First, students are more aware of their own aspiration, and many questioned said that
tendencies as they search and think about the reality would be a combination of the
their self-chosen issue. Second, students are two scenarios.
made aware of the personalization
incorporated in search algorithms as a form However, one participant (Wesley George,
of confirmation bias. principal engineer at Time Warner Cable)
concluded:
TODAY’S STUDENT AND THE
The difference between the two
INTERNET
scenarios will come down to the
ability of our educational system to
In 2012, the Pew Research Center’s Internet
teach people how to manage the flow
and American Life project (Anderson &
of information, the interaction
Rainie, 2012) released a report on young
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between personal and work, social Many people assume that today’s students
and entertainment, fact and opinion… are technologically savvy; however, this
the focus must be on the fact that often proves fallacious (Albitz, 2007). A
learning means knowing how to filter good example of this misconception is the
and interpret the vast quantities of 2014 revelation that Facebook was using its
data one is exposed to—we must use service to conduct research on unwitting
the fact that the Internet has all of this users; the research tested whether
information to spend less time doing manipulation of Facebook’s news feed
rote memorization and more time on could alter users’ moods (Dewey, 2014).
critical thinking and analysis of the When I asked students in my classes in the
information that is available to you. subsequent semesters whether they had
(Anderson & Rainie, 2012, p. 22) heard of this development, those who had
were a small minority. Similarly, students
Anyone who works with young people will have limited knowledge about the function
acknowledge that today’s youth place a of algorithms and how that function shapes
value on speed and immediacy. Small and their experiences on the Internet.
Vorgon (2008) argue that time on the Algorithms are mathematical formulae that
Internet brings changes in the way the brain execute a set of instructions to achieve a
functions, prioritizing fast processing over desired outcome. In online searches,
reflective decision making. Students use the algorithms are used to deliver “relevant”
Internet in a utilitarian fashion, employing content and advertising to a user based on
digital technologies to accomplish a task the user’s previous web “history.”
quickly; they tend to prioritize means over Algorithms are used to deliver search
ends and “getting it done” over “getting it outcomes, news, and advertising based on
right.” This tendency results in students the user’s profile as constructed by their
taking short cuts that may undercut learning web behavior—purchases, comments,
and knowledge (Swanson, 2011). In this previous web searches and other digital
case, the Internet and digital searching “droppings” users supply as they navigate
become crutches for students, and the haste the Internet.
to “get it done” creates work that is less than
sufficient. Familiarity with navigating social media,
websites and applications tells students
The instantaneous nature of digitized nothing about the value of what they are
information presents an illusion of ubiquity reading. Studies of students’ assessment of
and reliability and gives students a sense of websites generally conclude that they
knowing about the world that can border on engage in cursory analysis and heuristic
delusion. Speed and popularity seem to be methods to assess the value of a website.
the primary values guiding the use of Some of those heuristic methods reflect a
technology, but such values may also run short cut and a utilitarian orientation,
contrary to what makes information truly equating popular with good (Metzger,
valuable—that it is reliable and valid over Flanagan & Madders, 2010) and valuing
time. currency (Case, 2003), reputation, and self-
confirmation (Metzger & Flanagan, 2013)
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as ways to assess websites. In particular, researching a social justice issue for the rest
Metzger and Flanagan cite “expectancy of the semester. When students conceive a
violation” or the tendency to dismiss topic too broadly (“Why US elections don’t
unexpected information as not credible. We produce democracy”), I help them funnel
will see that this tendency parallels the topic down to something more
problems of confirmation bias. manageable (voter ID laws or
gerrymandering or campaign finance
PHILOSOPHICAL UNDERPINNINGS reform). When they have defined something
too narrowly, I help them make the topic
AND RELEVANT LITERATURE
more globally applicable. I also ask
students to consider how strongly they feel
Underlying my desire to help students
about the issue, as they will undoubtedly
independently evaluate the results of
have to consider perspectives to the
Internet searches was my recognition that
contrary.
the philosophy of Paulo Friere would be key
in developing this course. His
The third way in which Friere has
“problematizing” method of education fits
influenced the development of the course is
perfectly into the course’s philosophy, a
my avoidance of the term “information
sentiment found with some frequency in the
literacy” in the title and in course materials.
literature on critical information literacy
The term “literacy” implies deficit, and I
(Jacobs & Berg, 2011; Elmborg, 2006;
regard this phrase as a poor way to frame
Swanson, 2004). As noted earlier, Friere
the issue for students (Jacobs & Berg,
uses the “fish out of water” analogy to get
2011). My idea is to help students become
students to question what they know about
aware of and begin to master the traps of
the world. By “extraordinarily re-
today’s digital information environment.
experiencing the ordinary,” (Friere, 1970)
and questioning the “taken-for-grantedness”
This idea extends to Friere’s thoughts about
of the Internet, students in Information
“teachers” and “learners” as false
Searching and Analysis could become more
dichotomies. As Hall (2010) argues,
critical users of the Internet and apply the
teaching in today’s world should be about
skills learned to their daily lives, not only as
helping students remain curious and think
students, but also as citizens and consumers.
independently and critically. Following
Swanson (2004), who encourages faculty to
A second element of the course derived
give up some of that traditional “authority”
from the work of Friere is having students
historically assigned to professors, I
choose the issue they will focus on for the
perceive my role in this course to be one of
semester. I teach at a university where the
a facilitator of learning. I see this course as
social science faculty has historically taken
an example of the “flipped” classroom
social justice as a pinnacle. As a long-time
(Arnold-Garza, 2014), involving group
activist and social scientist, I have a broad
learning and discussion with only an
range of knowledge on social justice issues
occasional orientation lecture. Assignments
and know where to direct students when my
are judged largely on the basis of
knowledge runs thin. In the first two weeks
thoroughness and attention to detail. The
of the course, students commit to
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goal is to see students build good habits as helping them realize that not all websites are
researchers, and the assignments detailed equal and that a professional “look” to a
below are meant to be assessments of website could be a form of deception. To
meticulous learning by students. the degree that students follow national and
global events, they are increasingly using
These themes related to Friere’s philosophy their phones to do so, and they expect
appear in much of the literature in the area access to news for free. As part of this
of critical information literacy: Weaver and assignment, students came to realize that
Tuten (2014) encourage methods which most news still comes from newspapers
help individuals question their own thinking (now perhaps better termed news
and perceive ingrained thought processes. organizations), or from wire services that
Valentine and Wukovitz (2013) point out sell to newspapers. I also pointed out that
the value of making people confront advertising of any kind tends to shape the
alternative views by maintaining that kind of news presented. The assignment
cognitive dissonance disrupts our forced them to look at more independent
worldview, thus acting as a catalyst for efforts in news at not-for-profit news media,
learning. and at media sources driven largely by
subscriptions. In discussion, I posed to them
WEBSITE ANALYSIS ASSIGNMENT how such efforts may be meaningful, but
could they be viable in an Internet
In 2007, I began to incorporate into courses environment that seems to value “free” over
an assignment designed to problematize all else?
information searching on the web,
beginning with a website analysis project in Thus, I brought a political economy analysis
a course called Sociology of the News to my students’ understanding of
Media. Students were charged with information literacy. A political economy
accessing news sites and judging the quality analysis concerns itself with the social
and viability of the news at those sites. I struggle over the production, distribution
directed the students to the University of and consumption of resources (Mosco,
California at Berkeley Library website’s 1996). Seeing information increasingly as a
research tools: a page titled “Evaluating commodity—something to be bought and
Web Pages: Techniques to Apply and sold on the market—requires students to be
Questions to Ask” at http:// aware of the corporate digital powers
www.lib.berkeley.edu/TeachingLib/Guides/ increasingly governing the information
Internet/Evaluate.html served as a guide for environment.
completing the assignment. The assignment
was to evaluate news sites they considered While raising these issues had value in
itself, and the assignment hopefully helped
to be credible, and to review a variety of
assigned news sites and determine the students to build “good habits” of research
trustworthiness of each site. on the net, it was increasingly clear to me
that there was much more to problematize,
Based on the quality of work of most discuss, and research about how we access
students, the assignment worked in terms of information as students, researchers,
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consumers and citizens. I recognized the Jamieson is a user-friendly dissection of
questions posed by political economy news media, promotional practices, and the
analysis of the news media; questions such new forms of propaganda. A chapter on
as “Who pays for it? What are their confirmation bias serves as the starting point
motives? How do news media relate to other for that particular assignment. Eli Pariser’s
centers of power (ex. economic and The Filter Bubble: How the New
political)?” are all important considerations Personalized Web is Changing What We
for the larger information environment as Read and How We Think was an early book
well. A full course on this topic was both to explain and critique search
needed and invaluable if it could tap into personalization. Chapters on the psychology
student’s needs and experiences, and if it and political economy of information are
could demonstrate the significance of being valuable in helping students become more
a critical consumer of information wherever critical information consumers. The
it is found. readings from these books provide evidence
to students that they need to have a “heads-
What was to become Information Searching up” approach and encourage more
and Analysis began as a special topics discretion and critical thinking in web
course in a Political Science Department. searching.
The first three attempts at this course were
hampered by low enrollment that made COURSE ELEMENTS/
assessment of its effectiveness more
ASSIGNMENTS
difficult. As an elective, the course attracted
students across many disciplines, from the
This is a “blended” course that meets a great
social sciences to business. There were,
deal for the first six weeks; it meets less
however, many individual successes among
often as students complete their major
students in these first attempts that made
assignments. In the first few weeks, I
continuing to evaluate and modify the
convey basic Internet understanding, such as
course a worthwhile activity. The course
the meaning of suffixes and the importance
was built around searching on the Internet.
of multiple search terms and phrases. Early
It included the website analysis assignment
versions of the course included an
developed in the news media course, but
assignment on analyzing search results
placed it well into the middle of the
across search engines using the same search
semester after the class had examined
term or phrase; this assignment is now built
myriad psychological and political economy
into a course session as a demonstration that
implications of how we receive and process
students perform in groups.
information.
The key accomplishment for students early
TEXTS AND READINGS in the course is a critical assessment of how
our own psychological tendencies can bias
Since developing the course, I have our evaluation of information. This
consistently used one book. UnSpun: assignment helps students develop some
Finding Facts in a World of Disinformation tools to realize when they are engaging in
by Brooks Jackson and Kathleen Hall confirmation bias. The assignment, which
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focuses on our tendencies to find and value searches for youth football leagues and
information that agrees with our preferred equipment. They then both search on the
position, proved to pay off many times over. term “concussions.” The results each of
Students were tasked with taking a weekend them gets vary substantially. This exercise
to look for confirmation bias in popular helps students realize that the Internet is
culture, in their friends and family, and most watching their digital behavior and
importantly, in themselves. Using a chapter predicting what they want to hear—another
from unSpun which outlines six ways in form of confirmation bias that students
which both individuals and the media almost universally “get.” The exercise
encourage us to engage in confirmation accompanies several assigned chapters from
bias, students find the task of discovering The Filter Bubble that detail the psychology
examples of each in their lives to be and political economy of search
challenging, but also rewarding and self- personalization.
revealing.
In terms of independent effort, the three
Another class session focuses on search major assignments are the website
personalization. Students conduct searches evaluation, the news analysis, and an
based on their popular culture preferences or annotated bibliography. The website
interests. For example, a student who analysis is the assignment developed
follows football may conduct football- initially for the news media class that is now
related searches (for news, for team logo better contextualized in the new course.
clothing, for tickets), while another student Additionally, a formal evaluation form, with
TABLE 1—COURSE ASSIGNMENTS, OBJECTIVES AND VALUE TO COURSE
Assignment Objective/Purpose Value to Course Goals
A. Confirmation Bias To endow students with an Students begin to “check”
awareness of our tendencies themselves by reading sources
differently
B. Website Analysis To define the issues related to Learn to discriminate among
social justice topic Internet resources
To understand the “players” and Linked to A, can now better
their views on the issue critically assess truth claims on
the Internet
C. News Analysis To promote news literacy Read news differently; see that
not all news is the same
To help students determine how
news media frame their issue Differentiate between news and
opinion
D. Annotated Bibliography To determine the themes and To see how research deemed
findings that emerge from trustworthy lines up with news
trustworthy websites, news reports and popular websites
sources and academic literature
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extensive instructions and guidance so critique information available at three basic
students can work confidently and levels:
independently, was developed for both this
assignment and the news analysis The “Wild West” of the Internet—
assignment. understanding today’s search
engines and social networking sites
The news analysis assignment has also and the myriad claims to truth that
evolved from an emphasis on use of pervade interest group websites
“prestige” or “serious” newspapers. With a helps them become more skeptical
lecture on the nature of the news industry, users of the Internet and develop a
students now search a variety of news trustworthy set of sources to
organizations on their topic to get a good consult regularly.
flavor of how politicized news media can
be. The assignment serves as a news literacy The popular understanding of a
experience, where students identify the social justice issue via analysis of
selection of human and data sources cited in news media perspectives, and
the news report as keys to uncovering the whose themes ultimately frame
underlying perspective that exists in many social discourse on the issue.
stories in the media. This approach helps
students determine if a particular How peer-reviewed research is
perspective is favored in a news story and reflected (or not) in news reports,
encourages them to assess the range of as well as in various news and
perspectives available across the range of interest group websites. Students
news stories under analysis. The objective get a sense of whether the
of the assignment is to have students considerable resources invested in
understand what themes and frames are research influences the
popular in news portrayals of their issue. development of social discourse
and policy.
The annotated bibliography is the capstone
assignment for the course. Students annotate In meeting these goals, the course
the websites they deemed trustworthy; the accomplishes substantially more than the
news articles they assessed as credible; and “how-to” teaching component where the
related, peer-reviewed academic literature teacher “reveals” truths. By the time
on the topic. Table 1 summarizes the four students have worked through the
major learning experiences that comprise assignments, they have become not only
the heart of the course. smarter about how to access information,
but critical thinkers about information. The
LEVELS OF ANALYSIS FOR semester-long look at a social justice issue
now has a context that incorporates the
STUDENTS
socio-political world’s understanding and
discourse about that issue. Students can now
Ultimately, students emerge from the course
begin to discern the limits on social
more empowered to judge, analyze and
discourse around an issue by analyzing the
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breadth of perspectives on that issue in about themselves, specifically their
popular media, especially in the digital tendency to engage in confirmation bias,
information environment. most students cited that assignment as their
favorite; they reported being better table to
The net effect the news media may have on catch themselves engaging in confirmation
social debate in the ways issues and bias. A majority said they look at websites
solutions to issues are framed and often and news differently and that the course had
bounded is informed by political economy value beyond the classroom. The three
analysis of the information environment. In quotes below add some detail to these
advancing their knowledge about the results:
political economy of information, students
hopefully will take the attitude that their I am now far more literate in
trust of media outlets needs to be earned by critiquing what I am being told due
those outlets. While I originally wanted to to reading filter bubble and
get students to be better researchers, the unSpun...This has translated
course’s breadth has meant I could positively into my other courses by
accomplish much more, especially with allowing me to research more
students willing to explore their own effectively...this has also transferred
confirmation bias tendencies. Students are to my personal life as well, I often
much better to able to assess the quality of catch myself wondering where they
political debate among elected heard it, what the evidence is, and
representatives, evaluate the quality of news whether it was a credible source or
as it appears across the many different not.
retrieval options, and analyze how well the
public is informed about peer reviewed The confirmation bias assignment
research on a social justice topic. In terms of was one of the more difficult
Frierean education philosophy, students assignments. I think the reason lies
have re-experienced the Internet not as a with its introspective nature
fast, efficient way to research; they have identifying areas where you may
come to understand its traps, particularly its become more predisposed to react to
tendency to employ searching as a form of something on an emotional basis
confirmation bias. instead of objectively is an incredibly
hard but rewarding process.
STUDENT REACTION
This assignment was very interesting
Student reflection on the course through because it required you to seek an
end-of-semester reflection papers provides answer that does not please you,
taking you out of your comfort zone
insight into how a Frierean approach to
information literacy works with students. making you look at a subject from all
The assignments offer an experience of different aspects and angles.
empowerment, and students come to feel
greater control over the search process. It should be noted that these articulate and
Having learned some important aspects condensed remarks are reflective of about
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