Table Of Content|
en tie aes 0 Nut
ae,
A History of Change in the
Third Mission of Higher Education:
The Evolution of One-way Service
to Interactive Engagement
Carolyn BD, Roper, Masiiyn A, Hirth
Absteae:
his tovestigation traces the bustory of shacige it pubic
cotta cit hela Up it Ibid vaission, from the fha-
foe w ike coatenpocary ewagemen. The article
beqans with tbe cclergence ol U.S. higter education instit-
tions im the 1600s une! documents the changes cre by era to the
present. In cach ea, higher e¢ucation’s thind mvavion cou-
‘rihuted whut soviety nected aud positioned che fasion te
recelve the demecracy's gappat! ani ils immvial resmrces,
This ivestiquinn agnl « subsecuent study eveusing a frame
‘wot for third missioc aotivisies are steps tuward wider uraler=
standing and apprescalion of this important scament cf higher
eduestion
Intredue-r0
is investigation traces the histury of chsuge in public,
higher educaliom as it rclats to ils third maission, fromm the
traditional service tv the eon emporury engagement. The article
begins with the emergence of the institutions of fighor education
inthe UTnited Stores it the 1608 ond documents the chan;
by ett lo the presenl, Along the: route, there is abundant evidence
that higaer cdncation, ¢hsoagh its ¢hird mission especialy, tnurs-
Sunn itsel to meet the chauriug aveds of its society. The joumey
began ag secvice to community in the 1400s, shifted fo zesenrch
inthe mid 1950s, then merged with n neve form of service ia the
late twenticth conmey. One-rlrectional serviee—the university
piving is intelectual “oducts to sovicty—ranstormeé to hicli-
rectional engegcment, a hybridized version othe oxigiual ruts
that emphasizes relationships and internctious Setween the uri
versity and its cociety, Ihe final acetion of dais antiele shows how
changes i che tormiuology fir the third mission smennariza its
evelistion and suggest fun: directions.
4 aad af ir tbe Da an Eagan
“The Kirst 150 Years: Fo: the How and the Lilite
According to Mach @ii02), distrust 0.7 the masses eat be
lnaved at Teast as far suck as the elitism of Mato and Aris:olle. he
First Americar colonial volleges, Sepluciag in the 1600s, set oF
to form the intellects and the cheraelcrs of thes etude
ter heing definod 1 inclade moral and eivie sins (Colby et at
2060). Natiandcr and Saltma:sh (2000) concluded that higher od:
cation’s Loamcling missions were lo procute good citizens far the
emerging deaiocracy, This tradition froma Englaneé #95 onc-t-ack,
broad, general valucation Render 2007)
‘Whun America was 4 collection of eoloxies, higha* education
consisted of staniaaries to prepare religious keaders and tikeral
ats colleges wo prepare te weal ly become the leaders ol soczely
(tiriaple, Comes, and ifetioy 1989), Ht ves intended fr Une (exw wud
the cite, su they ennld lead the imeducated masses. The concept
cofextonsion, an exrly :erm for the third mission, started at Onford
aud Cambridge (Tumpsea ond Tamble 2000). After Harvard
College upexed iis classrooms in 1636, teuching was the major
task fora vollege intellectual and fre scarce of ackuevemen: for
150 years (Rover 1997). As the 1800s wopreached, the ooacept of
slale aniversirics por se cxne inlo existence to promote “vial
iraproverent ane. indiviccial happinoss.” The fitst such instinition
wae thz University of Georgia, created in 1785 aul apened in
1800 (Pultiom 7995, 67)
Tsiils: Legislative Acss Open Higher Learning
ty the Practical Aits and the Masses
As the 1800s unfolded, higher education's endeavors esealated
to speed the building of the mulion ‘Thramgh its levidative parwers
Ihe povemmieo! woud change highcr education tramcndensly.
from religious and liberal edveation for the tewe amd the elite te
[pinetical arts forthe musts, Key (2996) caredily traced the chace-
ing public policy positions regarding do goveramert’s dismosel «il
puslic lmds—oicher directly throngh safe of land of indirectly
Gogh donations lin peblic pmrposes such as lamd-yrsm ol
eyes—to bring chout ceonomic. expansion: ane thus more fod
revenue, ‘The Morrill Act of I8@, which established land gra.
institutions, was an economic development initia.ve by which the
young, faderal government hoped to encourage prosperiey chou
‘widespread ectucation in agricullural and practioal acts, The testi
ing increased revennss wrmid crable the gowurnsnent € pay wat
ddeots and =xpane, Lchation was the means; foveaue was The va
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i elt Ce we Seon Bie Bapapenst 5
Thé Morrill Act ereated land-geane instinations 10 avis with
he agrivutnal, mcchenical, und chnutogiea: changes affecting
‘Auneties. establishing the rissinn of mblic servive (Boyer 1997,
Thompson and Laurie 2000), tthe tine, a majority of Amerivans
sere engaged in ayricullual wosk, Lo bud agricultnte was to
fraild Amezica, This charge to a craft view of scuularship god
ftoxching reflected an epochal shift in the pavlosophy underlying.
higher education Bopte. Zi
Each slate was altotted thirty
momber, yekding tw “Through its legislative i
acres of public land devotod 1 powers the government
prectiewi and mechanical hisher wold change higher
tilueation (Stover 1969). AS the gancation tremendously.
county recovered Irom the Ci
front religious saad tib-
‘Wins sixty-seven and-gcant insti>
tutions emerged Bender and — eral education for the
Sohorshe F049) few and the elite to
+ Samy slates firmed new col. practical aves for the
Hf flexes, invluding thos: denoted A masses.”
: and Mt
Hy ‘ely; oUsers tanaformed ad ons
However, laste was nn science of
agricalture, and engineering wes just begining to Zorm a set of
scicutific principles. Marmurs in paricula, wets slow to accept
the ned for edieacion, preferring lo rely on experience Rudatph
1990}, Because classical higher eéueirion institutions wanted to
peomats “the cdueution of a mast az nan, rather thm tha: which
ccquups bim for a partic-ar post 02 duly Usey: Fgh the devel-
opmivnl of lund-gyant institutions (Reslafph 1850, 256)
The Tateh At of 1887 created ageenlniral experiment stations
as peal te land-grant mission. By bringing concrete infomation
livestock, and chemicals, these stators
courected the eorecon team and wonKen with the services of!
higher céucation (Thamon and ianhle 2000), Becease Tey pro
duced knowledge cetion! to the developmert of agtieax3ee, aBti-
cultural expezimsnt slalians were cey in gaining popular sepporl
fy the Tand-grazme institulions Ruviafuh 1996). As a resalt,
Congress in 1854 passed a Morrill Act Amene'ment bat provided
$15,008 to $25,000 annvalty to seaport cach inslitulivn, borin i
ving the concept of Federal fading far pablie higher education
astitotinns (Mfmgare £990). Exanding engincariag scieace helped
ricullaral and tacehani-
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Saco Pl Elin Ont and Rr
to develop the new indastrinl frotnvies.
ieetixg tbe signilicant needs af public policy, and the resule was
harmoay of interests between highor education and the society
ingle, Bis, and Byrack 199%)
‘Acadenai: institutions and the nation ilourished as the devel-
opment of mass corunication, trmsportation, cloctrivity, and
steam power Tansfimed the coumisy, There was an imriense
need. ty develop new technology and to trausfer associated skills
tw am cver-tuger public. Avcording wo Lacas (1986), these stae-
assisted mniversities. distinguished thermclvex hy conccatruting
con practical, applied knowledge and a public scrvice bent. Te
deseribed Ue aauovatious aclueved by 1900,
almost all ofthe hasic cloments of the public unive=
saly’s service role existee in embryonic farm: uni
sponsored volloquiz aud conferences open lo Lie publics
short courses; extension work; ofl-campus practica sand
smxient interiships; an faculty coneuttirion with besines
industry and agriculmeal organizations. . -. Acadecnic
expertise was su longer something to be found exela-
sively within some.carmpus enclave. Now it was moving
oll into society. (62)
‘During “he las: decades of te 1800s, smother major force
sas transforming academe from within: the moverrents for grace
sale educalion aud research bused! on the European, especially
German, tnedel, Iuslutions of higher education wore changing
sheit ercphasis from undergraduate edvcation of the citizen 10
specialized smdy, a pamcligm shift that went lend ta the emerent
academic disciplines (oper £90). The Bist research fustitulion
‘was Johns Hopkins University, which emerged in the {8Tis, fl
loved by a changing Harvard Universily in 1890 (Riser 2002). So as
the 1800s chbed, universities embeaced missions for both societal
nevis and research (Cheekoway 25H)
he Lest Sixty Yeats 0% the Twrentierh Century:
Survive Wines as Research Tekes Dosninaa:
The support for the lantgrat service tmssion continued
swith the passage of lle Strich-Lever Actin 1914, which wave per
mament funding for cooperstive agricultural extension throagh,
tue Jand-gront colleges for the puepose of distributing the resaita
research £0 the publi (2ompson ond ianuhle 2800). The @erroe-
racy wax cscentiaily legislating technology transfer. Following
‘hs tania of es Srvc os
soon after in the interest of growth of the nation were Sederal
ffmnde Zor tugher education, Ea the early 4900s, snene universitios
efised w sovept federal Funds. belioving thit undue influence
world resull, jusl as avademic professionals would lat
federal funds with zeal while mistrusting private fimds lor
lar reasons (Ficlonnta art Stevens 1908)
The modem American uni-
versily emerged between the
<= Civil War and World War Fas a
“th pst rbd Hrs? att estab
prosperity and growth gencral education to prepare (6
in enrollments, fastered — elite tw be leaders and the tadi-
in part By the Gl. Bill, then from Germany vf preparing
Brought significant prix lot seecialization in feld of
vate and federal funeling, Wot und ating on sescarch
The Gonnurn muuch browght ie
feading to even stronger sumeroue, seprid
holds by the disciplines.” ad loyalty th the. profes
sporialty amd ils organizations
rather thaa to “he institution, Ihe.
risen university combined
these owo in on educational program comptisics yenesal edusat-
tion requitemor followed by a snecialived major (Besder 2001)
Gredually, higher education professionals became more aod.
more concerned alent the level of contre! placed with the masses
and move and nore interested in cxcrcising dacir owt: anthorty,
By the 192M, higher cducation factlty in the Tinited States were
foginuiny wo Took imvard to autonomy aud academic #eedorn
‘The curricultim began to be organized wrciuad distapliues, which i
vanced the nods for new knowledge but were uso artificial
consiniets dividing the world in ways that prevented hotistic
inqunry. By the (940s, the disciplines narrowed Aiuther, aud nea-
‘lemios worked eveu larder for avionomy. The post-Wotld Wat i
prospecity and yrowlh in zarollasen's, fostered in part by the GL
Bil, brougat siguifican! private und Coukal funding, leading to
coven sironger holds by the diseiptines. Audieneus for the disti-
plincs became, more and moto, other academies, rather than
members of the pblic (Bender 2004)
Reneler and Schorake (998) described he next devaco, With,
the 1950 came he allcreLtets ofthe atomic hrm in World Wer
McCarthy's investigations, which threalented acsdemic freedom
sani other furuas of free expression; the Cold War, etd Late in the:
pt a i aE tn
ies th i nb A eis NENA RSET nose
decade, the launch of Sputnik. Those cvenls inspired feer and awe
serumg Annericans. Higher edhication reacted hy lonking, marl For
selfiprescrvation, forming cvcedighve corrals (ut ils own wulhonty
Uhis change From within te uexdemy motivated seholarly
rescurch olf ait leet ur private Funding, and usully in selene
area, Creation of the Nationa.
Se:enee Voundation in, 1980
Gevuted she le of peer review,
in contrast to. lay ar politica
“The Cold War encou- —Fecoy akin The ows
aged facuity fo turn fill ia the postwar seonumry aid
fore to scientifie research, expaniling failh in the power of
‘and objectivity and to be education 10 transform L-ves
hom the oft intormingled te cause siguii-
along from the affiirs of cuuly 3 he eased federal fund,
publia life
! ing for higher adveatioa.
Geusrally, supourt for scien!
resoareh flourished between
1945 amd 1975 (Quiey 2068)
‘Wilh widexpread supperrbr the pzeemtinenes of rescarck and
sclextific inquiry (Richardson #955), the lund grant radilion ef
service deelined signilivuntly during the 1950s, Faeuky: wantel
receurch oppnrunitics, hettor collenpnes, hetter students, amt
greater autonamy. Raising avadercic standards tar faery
trough! aboutmuce elitiaa and c1ore power lor departments over
auininisursturs, the hastitulion, und local concerns. In . revurn 00
auitudes cf” forme: times, these events ex3scd schalar t worry
that the geaeral pognfation waz nol edoqualcly prepared ta make
iniolloctual decisions (Bemfer anf Schone 108). "The Cold War
cneouraged faculty to turn fall foroe to scientific esearch un
objectivity and an be aloof Sum ue affairs of public Tile
(Hollander and Seimarsh Mey. The wery wwer was established
and griwing tall. The leaders of the democracy -ended te agree
wit academe, as wae reflected, for example, in wlowing pect
review in she granc compotitiuns or Jedeval dollars, Thes
ments fowsnd reseateh, pect review, autonomny, and pudlieslivn
as indicators of zeadomic mocess “shilted the bulaave of Iaculty
work... a greoscupatioz on research and diseipine ese
work, at the expenses of teaching anil service” (firiugle, Gams,
and Salioy 1995, 0. The precepts of echication for detaoeracy or
sitizenship Tost favor as faonlty: and achainistrutors ak Ame
research universities redelimesi their roles as teaching acd
research, scliviies ths eunpliasived aeaderrivians as the source of
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eerie sgt once en yin DN
fictions et
fn lt i
Ye bootion af Cay Seif nt
Eigasenent 9
prestige a‘reved via s rewards system that bonored publications
sand preseutarions among i small number of peers, often limited
to u particular discipline (Ciockoway 2604). ‘The soeho wea sot fot
1 divergenes: im the isleacsls of the wexdeanic und publie weaues.
Is: Suciel Ciaest aad
cxtioning Higher Kéucation
‘The social uatest of the 1960s wee franced by the uspupulur
awur in Vielnani and social innovations suck as the birth control
pill. New horizs Hike space Tight and technological ndvanice-
fusnts such 28 relevisinn and mainfinme compers.frnentel
russive altections in society
Protest marches and sits hit
campuses across the comity, . y
culminating witi the Kens State Le the 1970s}
Violenes znd mdcrcrmg the Clanipetition arrived on
niced for heticr towm-gown — campres, and the idea of
relationships. Sous ia soviely owe instittdion meeting. alt
sex higher education sspan-0~ ends of all ennstisvents
tho problem rather than as the sean to vithen’
sahifion. Some felt the same began to »ither:
way ahaut the govermmert
{Boner at Neto 790%)
c 1970s: Economie Turmoil Brings
inmapetition to Camus
Tliga inflation slong with wage and prive spirals i the 1970
cccated a new set of pressures for higher ecucicion, Economic
disorder brought ceecuasing sesou-ves Cender 2081) DRL 1397),
Ihe financial pressures forced insticutions to reevalvat: pro-
guns, oLLing some in order to preserve and improve thers, In
the process, an institulivn would wlec: “de cick in wick it wil
chonse to cempele amd the social values by whick ¥: will shape its
seale, Scapa, and care competencies” (Fail £99%, 144). The Nixon
coves-up controversy catsee distzust a€ pubic satties, including
higher education ‘Bendsr and Seienshe £998)
Competition arrived on campus, and che idea. of nre:institae
tion mecling all needs off all constituents bey to wither, Wilk
the economy in treable, the democracy trned again to highse
education to colve society's economic and soci problems ay it
hhad in the mid-1 8098 (Hotiond £999). ho professoriate bepan ta
diversify ls become more Female ed rece rinorily, chamginss
Sagas
1a ogi of te Eduoien Our a
the faces at the ‘ont of the classrocns Irom. the 1950s walle,
sale, elitisl, Fucopean mods! (Reader und Sehorske 1998),
‘The 198s: The Thine Mission Reomerges a4
Bathawag to Beonomic Renewal and Ave. rstabilily
Tho next decade hogan with the gaverament eneoureging
aughec edocation to help soive ccomomic woes with the passaye
of the Buyb-Dole Act i 1980; universities could patent research
forded by the fetsrd govenmnent aul leu watts toyalsies by
licensing the results of research wa privaleascelur businesses
‘Slaugiter and Leslie 15971, Tt was key to university financial
hreaith and something af a snilessone in partnerships bervezn
brigher education and business. In she mid-L980s the tradition of
byvad, geoeral education was ending (Bender 2012), and universi«
bios bogaa tu change Lion oriters of knowledge > complex basi-
nesses with products lo ruarkel, New roles such as cuonounie
stevelopment were attractive in the face af declining enro:trnents,
funding decreases, rising, enste, znd a retactance to fallow “he
business mogel for downsizing ‘Gotdstein and imger 1990).
Campus Compact was fomnded in 1985 to foster th: civie puspos-
es ul higher education; it would eventually boast aver seven han-
dred igher education presidente as members ‘fellanden
Sutimarde, ant Honkowesde 2061). Revell (1997) deseribed this
change in the 1980s as a shift from the public utility paliey role
lw tbe “corporalist” rote. Charopioned by gavernars, this change
saw higher education xs a good for sociey and the evonery in
developing a holler work ree and fosteriny healthy bexinosses
Since higher sducation wa supposed te be good for tae democ-
racy, the policymakers for detioeraey should measure she value
it provided. Theretore, state mandatzs for assoxsment, funding
inilianves for quality efforts, and national education goa!s all
descomMcu bo campuses ‘Ewell £997}, ‘hose interested! in better
public funding and greater public service huuded this renewed
potitical inmetest in higher education, while those ioterested in
autonomy and control by the professoriaee bemoaned it, Ledeod
the fifly years from 1940 :0 1990 seow Fedor Lunds inereuse by #
factor of twenty-five and cnroltment hy a factor of ten while
teaching loads were out in half: Fron 1250 10 1970 gevetument
spending on higher education inewaed from 32.2 bilfion te
$23.4 billion, reaching S31 billion by 1991 (ender en Schorr
#993). The demncracy wns cantribnting major fands tn higher
educaton, and its policymakers felt justified in demanding «
return on their invest:
i
g
sy Srey ners Engg LL
The L99Ds: Er Academe and
Caruzunily te Cope w th a Chauging, World
AS the 198U8 gave way lo the L980s, higher edreation was
Joreod to reexamine itself and scek aitemative sonrees of fundiag
as public support dwindle hecanse increased global competition
diapinishod stzte and federal cox revenues (Oley 2005). Some in
society begun to call for more diverse rales Yor universitios and a
retum lo community service ax 2 part of schalarshity (oifand
1999), A eminent change agent was athe Loteltont of Uke move
moat: Dr, Himest t. Boyet A leudcr uf our dovadles, he wes sxe
reen-year president of ihe Carnegie Foundation for the
Adwarcoment of Teaching, a U.S. commissioner of edueation,
and chat:eellor of the State Laivetsiiy af Now Yerk. bn a dure
instk report i 1901, Boyce seid, “... Tinkuges between the eam-
pus aint contesporary problems nmast he sirengehened” (76), lle
inaugurated a clarion ery for sew deLuitivus uf sctolarsbip:
“And! to sustain the viulity oF
Jrigher education in our time, a
new vision of scholarship is
(Fhe BayhoDote et... BH oe deg
was key to university acalemy Del, allimately, to the
isancial hewlih and senewal of society ilsell” (75
something of a milestone The American public had
in purtnerships between m ta view the practice of
higher education and nese ei wt i concent
business, and narrow Toews as “elitist
and isesponsible” Bender and
Schirse £998. 29).
4u the early 1990s anther publie policy shit. ftom the carpo-
alist view accunred (Fit 199%, The “Neer Right” consielerod
higher education a good that bestowed private rather than public
hhonefits; taencfore tue individual shoud pay the bills witht any
special favors of access. Remediation was rejected in favor of
admitting. those capable of higher-level study. Less xperieneed
policytnakers iuplerceuling this perspoctive in an age of tern
Limite sought perfirmance indicutors that reflected efficiency
rather than qeality. This view wna ndaptecl mainly by a subset of
the Republican. arty, while seme Republicims and most
Democrats memlained the comporatist stance. This divergence of
perspectives yielded confasion in public policy that pave higher
(£2 dota stp Mea
ctucation a opportunity to control its owt destiny while the
democracy shuffle is fee for a tins.
Weiting in 1995 two monlas before his death, Boyer eam
rental! uu Une docrease in public epprova. for academic tradi
ties, also noting thal, for she tirsl sume ut several decades, no
mpeling national need was driving the dircetiuu of avaderr ia.
ticle, tilled “Ihe Scholarship ol Engage-weat,” added a
pesw iter za higher eduection’s lexicon: engagesnent, an eucont-
pissing ferm to substitute far service, extent
ouuer related words, Tislariclly the thisd mission be
implemeuted as onz-way commuscealion .¢ which a
experts transZeared thei wistom: to the masses. Boyer ineroduced
aew twist for higher education: th: .oo-vaty strexi of inte:ze-
Fions o> parmerships botween the acatlemy and the outsive weal.
specially in dhe later 1990s, ploba.ivalinn and. communica
fion innovations. including the Intsrivl, Uiusinished the size of
the world. New opportunities lik distanoe lezcrins thteavened ot
enlivencd the prcfeasoriate, The pace a° dhe world, e7o-worker
fiouschotds, nontruuitionat firily stmetmres, ard other foraes
ccouverged to bring about less pasticipation eivie, political, and
volute: organizations. At Lais imeiure Carnpns Compact
expand is purpose from community sevice ta servi
ing, This new approach ww the Crird nission intszrated! cemoneni
ty activity with academic snily (Hollander. Salimursh, anil
Hiatheraste 2001). 4 995 Canpns Compuct survey asked wit
ters of the public w apportion $100 of tox money to lewhing,
resouch, and extension at ¢ lind-grml gniversite. Respndents
allocates. 845 to on-campus teaching, $39 ‘0 extension, and $25
te rencares (Harmer ofa, 1996).
Trvou Key Lifforte Rederine the ‘Thing Mission
for the Tweaty-first Century
2. oF the Tater 1990s, a nations] commision sym
y ‘eal Association af State Universities and Land-
Giant Colleges (NASULGE) and finded by the Kellogg
Foundation hogan a! multiyear indy of higher echication that would
cavcurage the new Irilogy of fearing, disciery, and engagement
rather than the clder aching, research. aux] service, Under orce af
iis chosen mibsies, the engaged bvttusion, Uae vulnnission wold
explore “going beycnd extension lo bosoms more productively
volved with our cnmnmnities” (Rickurhn 7995, 5
ln the 1999 Kellogg Comission repors Third Worn
Paper: The Hngages Instinstion: Profites und Dais, off-cials
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