ERIC EJ1069270: The 3-I Career Advising Process and Athletes with Foreclosed Identity

2015·0.23 MB·English

by  ERIC

The 3-I Career Advising Process and Athletes With Foreclosed Identity
Donna J. Menke, University of Memphis
Student-athletes who identify more strongly with student-athletes, especially those who identify
their athletic role than their academic life may strongly with their athletic role, to make appropri­
neither encounter nor embrace the chance to ate career choices.
explore career options. Their lack of exposure or
interest to career advising may compound career A Complicated Advising Process
immaturity and development. Gordon’s (2006) 3-I Student-athletes frequently work with multiple
(inquire, inform, integrate) decision-making pro­ on-campus personnel who provide advice. For
cess applied to career guidance may help example, most Division I institutions employ
advisors encourage professional development athletic academic ‘‘counselors’’ or ‘‘advisors’’
and personal growth among student-athletes. who report within the athletic department. They
Integrating knowledge of self with academic primarily attend to the academic needs of the
information requires engagement in the inquiry student-athlete and monitor compliance with
and information gathering stages of the fluid 3-I National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA)
cycle, which may contribute to greater career academic eligibility policies (Broughton & Neyer,
maturity, especially for the identity-foreclosed 2001). In addition to or instead of full-time
student-athlete. personnel who report to the athletic department,
many campuses assign an academic advisor within
[doi:10.12930/NACADA-14-031]
the student-athlete’s major, and in some cases this
KEY WORDS: 3-I model, career advising, career person assists solely with course registration,
development, decision making, foreclosed identi­ relying on the athletic academic advisor as the
ty, student-athletes primary source of campus academic and career
information.
All student-athletes must balance their time and Thompson (2013) described the complicated
energy between their roles as a student and as an communication networks and the multiple advice-
athlete. Evidence suggests that student-athletes givers and stakeholders associated with student-
who devote more time to their athletic pursuits athletes, so the complex and various advising-
more strongly identify as an athlete than as a delivery possibilities are not addressed in this
student, and they may expect to continue their sport article. Regardless of their specific title or role, any
participation at the professional level (Linnemeyer institutional representative assigned to help student-
& Brown, 2010). As a result, academic advisors athletes with their decision making, especially as it
face challenges in encouraging the development of applies to careers, will benefit from learning
the whole person as indicated by best practices. Gordon’s (2006) 3-I process. Therefore, in this
Furthermore, efforts spent trying to balance paper, to avoid cumbersome terms and overgener­
sports and academics often leave student-athletes alized role assumptions, all persons (e.g., athletic
with little time or energy to focus on career academic advisors, academic counselors, etc.) who
development. Because career concerns are best assist a student-athlete with career exploration are
addressed by those who can decode the complex referred to as academic advisors or advisors.
college curriculum and address concerns of the
student (and parent) who expect a college degree to Literature Review
lead to a prosperous career (Gordon, 2006; Hughey In some cases, student-athletes strongly identify
& Hughey, 2009), advisors naturally fit as guides with their athletic role to the extent that they do not
for initial career exploration. However, to help explore nonsport careers or areas of interest.
student-athletes realize their career potential, Individuals who exhibit an ideological or occupa­
advisors must find a way to break through the tional commitment to sports without considering
time and emotional commitment barriers created other possible futures demonstrate identity foreclo­
by their advisees’ dedication to their sport. This sure (Linnemeyer & Brown, 2010). Many student-
conceptual paper demonstrates the usefulness of athletes have spent a significant portion of their
Gordon’s (2006) 3-I (inquire, inform, integrate) lives focusing on crafting their skills and perform­
decision-making process as a means to help ing their sport with a sense of pride. The
22 NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015
Career Advising Student-Athletes
longstanding commitment and associated acco­ 2009). According to research by Hughey and
lades seal their athletic persona (Linnemeyer & Hughey (2009), students articulated career plans,
Brown, 2010). When this identity precludes such as pursuing a position in professional sports,
development of other areas of self-development, which may not prove realistic. Hughey and Hughey
the student-athlete may face disappointment and an suggested that athletes may not distinguish be­
uncertain future. tween athletic and vocational identities and those
The scholarly literature suggests that student- individuals with limited occupational information
athletes do not invest much time or energy in career may not recognize that their vocational identity is
development and lag behind nonathletes on underdeveloped.
measures of career maturity (Blann, 1985; Murphy, Linnemeyer and Brown (2010) compared levels
Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996; Singer & Buford May, of identity foreclosure, career maturity, and career
2010; Tyrance, Harris, & Post, 2013). Linnemeyer foreclosure among student-athletes (n = 101), fine
and Brown (2010) defined career maturity as ‘‘the arts students (n = 121), and ‘‘general’’ (i.e., from
readiness to make career decisions and to cope English, math, and psychology classrooms and
with vocational and educational developmental
identified by the authors as neither athletes nor
tasks’’ (p. 617).
artists) (n = 104) college students. They used the
More recent studies have focused on interven­
Career Maturity Inventory–Revised, the Objective
tions to improve career decision making of college
Measure of Ego Identity Status, and the Commit­
athletes. Harrison and Lawrence (2003) found that
ment to Career Choices Scale to assess the levels
student-athletes benefited from reading about
of career maturity as well as identity and career
current professional athletes who have successfully
foreclosure among the three groups. Results
integrated their athletic and academic roles. The
showed that athletes tended to score lower on
student–athlete participants in their study stated
career maturity than the art and the other college
that work ethic and status as a good student were
students, but the results were not statistically
important components in their own personal
significant. Athletes showed higher levels of
success both as students and as athletes.
identity foreclosure than the other cohorts at
Evidence from qualitative studies suggests that
statistically significant levels. This study revealed
student-athletes are steered into majors or partic­
that 11% of the athletes in the sample participated
ular courses by advice givers or significant others
in the revenue-producing sports of football and
in their academic lives (Beamon, 2013; Benson,
basketball, which feature high profile professional
2000). This practice seems avoidable, but conflict­
careers (Linnemeyer & Brown, 2010). These
ing class meeting times and demanding practice
results suggest that a strategic career intervention
and competition schedules leave the student-athlete
with little energy left for other pursuits and plan may benefit student-athletes.
challenges the academic advisor to develop the Those interested in uncovering the reasons
kind of rapport over time that he or she may enjoy behind findings of career foreclosure looked for
with nonathlete students. differences among participants of men’s basketball
In a study that may help those with influence on and football to determine whether they may
student-athletes, Navarro (2014) examined the articulate a less developed sense of career maturity
career-planning construction process of college than their counterparts in nonrevenue sports. In
athletes and developed a conceptual model for their addition, the demographic characteristics of the
career development. Her work revealed career student-athletes may affect attitude and information
development themes discovered in childhood acquired about post-college careers. In particular,
through observations and awareness of careers as student-athletes involved in revenue-producing
well as those explored upon matriculation and sports commit to relatively highly scrutinized
selection of a major. As student-athletes entered programs, which may tempt them with visions of
their final terms, they began career preparation and high profile professional careers. Although equally
developed resumes, practiced interview skills, and committed to their sports and some with plans to
networked with potential career contacts. As move into professional ranks, those participating
demonstrated by Navarro, career development on teams with smaller public followings, such as
requires a whole person approach. tennis, lacrosse, and gymnastics, typically do not
For all individuals, athlete or not, career experience the media attention and the public
development often begins in early adulthood and criticism of their male counterparts in football and
is influenced by many factors (Hughey & Hughey, basketball.
NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015 23
Donna J. Menke
Smallman and Sowa (1996) compared levels of search seminar and to identify competencies and
career maturity among student-athletes in revenue characteristics gained through their student–athlete
producing versus nonrevenue producing sports. experience, such as leadership and discipline.
They found no differences in the student-athletes’ Athletes also could discuss fears and expectations
levels of career maturity between the two groups of as they began the job search process. Participants
athletes. More recently, a study examining career valued the knowledge gained in the workshops and
development and athletic identity found that seminars. In particular, the athletes appreciated
student-athletes who more strongly identified with knowing their experience with sports provided
their athletic role were ‘‘less confident in their them with marketable skills (Wilkes et al., 1989).
ability to handle change in future career plans’’ This concern was also expressed later by Danish,
(Tyrance et al., 2013, p. 30), which often included a Petitpas, and Hale (1993) in an article on the
desire to become a professional athlete. In this experience of college athletes.
study, Division I student-athletes participating in Other researchers found that students who may
revenue-producing sports expressed relatively little feel little control over their future and those with
optimism regarding future careers (Tyrance et al., low self-efficacy benefit most from career devel­
2013). These studies indicate a need for continued opment workshops (Burns, Jasinski, Dunn, &
research on the complex factors that affect the Fletcher, 2013). All those concerned with the
futures of student-athletes. well-being of student-athletes would benefit from
A handful of researchers have recognized that knowing ways to help them gain a sense of control
minority student-athletes lack career information over their future and improve their career decision
due to demographic characteristics, including self-efficacy. The 3-I career-decision process
economic status. For example, studies have developed by Gordon (2006), a foremost expert
suggested that African Americans see themselves in advising undecided students, provides a useful
with limited career options due to few diverse role model.
models and real or perceived obstacles to careers
(Beamon, 2014; Harrison & Lawrence, 2003; Gordon’s 3-I Process
Smallman & Sowa, 1996). More research is needed With influence from the decision-making model
to examine the many factors involved in the career of Tiedman and O’Hara (as cited in Gordon, 2006),
development and career maturity of underrepre­ who promoted a decision-making paradigm that
sented student-athletes. includes a planning and action stage, Gordon
Lally and Kerr (2005) examined the relation­ (2006) developed the fluid 3-I decision-making
ships between student-athletes’ career planning and process made up of three steps (inquire, inform,
their identities as athletes and students to find that and integrate) as a framework for advancing career
many invest in both their student and athletic roles development with college students. In the inquire
to develop career maturity. Many student-athletes process, students identify their own unique aca­
in their study entered college with limited future demic and career concerns and clarify information
career plans, but as they progressed through needed to make decisions. At this stage, they may
college their awareness and thus their career ask advisors to provide guidance and direction as
aspirations changed and expanded. These findings they enter the collection, or inform, phase. Those
comport with earlier findings by Blann (1985), ready to gather career information look into
who showed that male student-athletes at the junior personal attributes as well as educational and
and senior levels formulated mature educational occupational data. Finally, students start to inte­
and career plans at levels nearly equal to their non- grate the information. At this final stage, students
athlete counterparts. These findings offer encour­ and their advisors determine the steps to appropri­
agement that programming developed to enhance ately assimilate the personal, academic, and
the career development of student-athletes can vocational information the students have amassed
improve the prospects for students experiencing (Gordon, 2006). Figure 1 shows that advisors need
identity and career foreclosure. not process the 3-I steps linearly and may find that
A career development program at Virginia a student will need to revisit a stage after moving to
Commonwealth University (Wilkes, Davis, & another part of the process.
Dever, 1989) included career exploratory opportu­
nities using the My Vocational Situation assess­ The 3-I Process and The Student-Athlete
ment and the Self-Directed Search. Athletes For a student-athlete who insists on a profes­
received the opportunity to participate in a job sional sports career, an advisor may want to initiate
24 NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015
Career Advising Student-Athletes
Figure 1. The fluid 3-I process professional basketball. The advisor can ask
if she is aware of the number of college
athletes drafted by the WNBA each year and
the length of a career in the league. The
advisor can then suggest that Angela seek
on-campus resources that provide this infor­
mation.
Angela has articulated a career goal that
reflects placement in the integrate stage of
Gordon’s (2006) 3-I process. At this initial point,
Note. Gordon (2006)
the advisor can gain Angela’s trust as they address
her career development. The questions posed to
the integrate process. At this phase, the advisor can Angela will move her into the inquire process and
assess the student’s knowledge about the path to a will inspire more questions designed to clarify her
professional sports career and work it into discus­ career development needs. Then Angela will enter
sions. For example, moving into the inquire phase, the inform process to gather more data on which
an advisor can ask about process instead of to make career decisions and develop a parallel
outcomes: ‘‘What does it take to become a plan to accompany her goal of reaching the
professional athlete in your sport?’’ ‘‘Do you know WNBA. She then revisits the integrate process
how many student-athletes achieve that goal in a and incorporates her new knowledge with her
year?’’ ‘‘Do you know the typical length of a career goals.
professional career in your sport?’’ ‘‘What particular
college major do you think will help you achieve Athletes Seeking a Career in Sport
your goal?’’ The advisor may also need to broach Many student-athletes express interest in a
some difficult areas of self-reflection to determine if ‘‘career in sport’’ with no specific focus. The
the student-athlete is competing at a level likely to advisor must then determine, through inquiry, the
lead to a professional career in their sport. reasons that inform the advisee’s interest. Specif­
The NCAA (2013) has published the following ically, the academic advisor asks about the
percentages of student-athletes drafted by U.S. student’s career concerns and the information she
professional leagues: men’s baseball, 9.4; football, or he deems necessary to make a decision or
1.6; men’s soccer, 1.9; men’s basketball, 1.2; proceed toward the goal. After identifying a focus,
women’s basketball, 0.9; and hockey, 0.8. This the student starts to gather information to integrate
information can be valuable for the athlete with personal attributes, educational background,
interested in pursuing a professional sports career. current academic standing, and athletic accom­
plishments. This process provides the student with
Athletes With Identity Foreclosure the information necessary to further narrow a
The fictional case study of Angela demon­ career area of interest and begin to set goals to
strates the 3-I decision-making process (Gordon, attain it. The fictional case study of Quinn
2006) employed with an identity-foreclosed demonstrates Gordon’s (2006) 3-I decision-making
athlete. process for athletes who initially profess a desire to
pursue a vague career in sport.
Angela is a first-generation college student
attending State University on a basketball Quinn, a senior on the football team,
scholarship. She wants to be a professional declared accounting at the end of his
basketball player in the WNBA. When asked sophomore year. Prior to the end of his final
the academic major she wishes to pursue, she season, Quinn tears his ACL, significantly
shrugs and says she does not know. Is Angela’s dimming any chance of getting noticed by
undecidedness due to a lack of information on scouts and continuing into the professional
majors and careers or other factors? ranks.
Angela’s advisor may want to investigate Quinn tells his advisor that he may enjoy

Angela’s knowledge about the career path to becoming an elementary school teacher. He

NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015 25
Donna J. Menke
has spent his summers coaching at various the student-athlete can embrace and adapt Gordon’s
sports camps for kids and enjoyed the work. (2006) 3-I decision-making process. Of course, a
In the inquire process, Quinn would benefit collaborative relationship between these entities,
from reflecting upon key questions posed by including coaches and faculty members, can
his academic advisor: reinforce key aspects of inquiry, inform, and
integrate as the student-athlete explores careers
• How is teaching like your work as a camp and transitions from being a foreclosed student
counselor?
with a sole identity as an athlete.
• What aspects about the sports camps Most advisors in and out of the athletic
appeal to you? department must understand the impact that a
• What are the qualifications of persons who lifelong commitment to sport has exerted from a
direct these camps? very early age on college athletes; these students
• What related occupations involve working have achieved success, received accolades, and are
with school-aged children? Or with sports hailed by friends and strangers alike as ‘‘athletes.’’
camps? Do these careers interest you?
As a result, many have never considered an
As Quinn processes those questions, he enters alternate or additional identity. All advisors must
the inform process. Quinn’s advisor directs him recognize the distress in identity change or loss that
toward several useful sources, including O*NET may confront the large numbers of student-athletes
Online, a free web site offered by the U.S. who will not enter sports as a vocation. However,
Department of Labor (n.d.), that features detailed encouraging student-athletes to grow through
job descriptions, necessary qualifications, em­ career exploration, and potentially other areas as
ployment trends, and links to related careers. In well, can prove rewarding for the student and
addition, the advisor encourages Quinn to visit should not be avoided (Shaffer & Zalewski, 2011).
the campus career center and suggests he Student-athletes do not necessarily distinguish
specifically ask to take career assessments, which their athletic identity from a vocational identity and
will further clarify his interests and values. so will not seek out career counseling centers on
Personnel in the career center or elsewhere can campuses (Martens & Lee, 1998). Academic
help Quinn align the assessment results with his advisors can help student-athletes make intentional
skills and experience and suggest various career decisions using the Gordon’s (2006) 3-I process to
fields. introduce career exploration, first by asking
Armed with this type of self-knowledge, questions about the individual’s plans for the future
Quinn can return to his advisor to discuss and second by explaining ways her or his current
programs of study that may help him achieve courses and major fit into those plans.
his new career goals. That is, Quinn enters the Advisors must assess the student-athlete’s
integrate process with his advisor to assimilate his readiness to make career decisions by inquiring
personal preferences and views as well as his about his or her career goals. Furthermore, not all
academic and athletic knowledge with his newly college athletes develop a foreclosed identity.
acquired information about careers. After engag­ Developing rapport with student-athletes and
ing in all 3-I (Gordon, 2006) processes, Quinn creating a safe place to discuss and explore their
will be ready to make a sound decision regarding career options can help them deal with issues of
his future. foreclosure and develop problem-solving skills that
The fluid 3-I decision-making process (Gor­ will benefit them throughout their lifetime (Shurts
don, 2006) allows the student-athlete and advisor & Shofner, 2004). All personnel seeking to help
to cycle through the career development process. student-athletes succeed in and after college, from
This nonlinear path, that may involve entering advisors in athletics, career counseling centers, and
and reentering 3-I phases, allows the student- academic units (including faculty members), can
athlete to explore all possible options and feel collaborate on career advising to enhance the
involved and in control of his or her own career personal growth and development of student-
development. athletes.
Although debate continues to rage about the
Implications for Advisors role and significance of sport on college and
As many student-athletes work with more than university campuses, participation in collegiate
one person to negotiate their unique dual roles, all athletics confers specific advantages to the student
persons responsible for the long-term success of (Potuto & O’Hanlon, 2007; Watt & Moore, 2001).
26 NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015
Career Advising Student-Athletes
Advisors of all types can encourage student- working through inquire and inform, the student
athletes to identify skills learned and utilized in reenters the integrate stage ready to make parallel
sport that can be transferable to and marketable in plans for a career in sport and in another area to
the work place. Danish et al. (1993) found that pursue when his or her athletic participation is over.
some athletes did not recognize the skills they had
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Donna J. Menke, PhD, is an assistant professor
812.
Potuto, J., & O’Hanlon, J. (2007). National study at the University of Memphis. Her research
of student-athletes regarding their experience areas of interest include academic advising,
as college students. College Student Journal, career development, and student-athletes. Con­
41, 947–967. tact Dr. Menke at [email protected].
28 NACADA Journal Volume 35(1) 2015