Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
ED 469 240
CE 083 896
Girls' and Women's Education: Policies and Implementation
TITLE
Mechanisms. Synthesis of Fire Case Studies.
INSTITUTION
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization, Bangkok (Thailand). Principal Regional Office
for Asia and the Pacific.
PUB DATE 2000-00-00
NOTE
21p.; For related case studies, see CE 083 891-895.
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appeal/girls&women/synthesis.p df.
PUB TYPE
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Evaluative (142)
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DESCRIPTORS
*Access to Education; Adult Basic Education; Attitude Change;
Case Studies; Comparative Analysis; Compulsory Education;
Developing Nations; Educational Attitudes; Educational
Change; *Educational Needs; Educational Policy; *Educational
Quality; Elementary Secondary Education; Ethnic Groups;
Foreign Countries; Government School Relationship; Minority
Groups; National Programs; Nonformal Education; Preschool
Education; Program Effectiveness; *Public Policy; Rural
Areas; Rural Education; Sex Fairness; State of the Art
Reviews; *Strategic Planning; Teacher Student Relationship;
Women Faculty; *Womens Education
IDENTIFIERS
*Asia Pacific Region; India; Indonesia; Laos; Nepal; Thailand
ABSTRACT
The national policies and implementation mechanisms for
girls' primary and women's basic education in the following Asian countries
were examined: Lao People's Democratic Republic; Nepal, Thailand; Indonesia;
and India. The analysis focused on the following issues:
(1) goals and
progress;
(2) national policies;
(3) strategies (strengthening nonformal
education; targeting ethnic minority and rural women; launching innovative
programs; cultivating gender sensitivity; making education compulsory;
introducing preschooling; recruiting and training women teachers; relating to
girls); and (4) outstanding issues (valuing girls' education; managing the
entry of private schooling; party politics compromising education; the slow
pace of decentralization; inadequate funding). The following were among the
14 national and international recommendations that emerged from the study:
(1) strengthen girls' and women's education as a tool of empowerment and
poverty alleviation;
(2) nurture horizontal communication between ministries
to foster a cohesive, gender-responsive approach by government to education;
(3) adopt participatory methods;
(4) develop mechanisms to harness the
successful learning from micro projects;
(5) promote public dialogue on the
value of girls' education;
(6) initiate systematic monitoring and evaluation
of girls' and women's learning outcomes;
(7) provide needed training and
support to women in gender-test roles; and (8) develop and apply a gender
lens for international funding and interventions. (Contains 48 footnotes.)
(MN)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
Girls' and Women's
Education: Policies and
Implementation Mechanisms
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1
2
SI
AVAILABLE
COPY
GIRLS' AND WOMEN'S EDUCATION
Policies and Implementation Mechanisms
The Jomtien Conference (1990) and the Fourth
This comparative profile focuses on national policies
World Conference on Women (1995) triggered
and implementation mechanisms for girls' primary
unprecedented dialogue on gender issues within
and women's basic education drawn from case
these national education ministries and with non-
Lao PDR, Nepal,
studies in five Asian countries'.
government stakeholders in education. The global
Thailand, Indonesia and India expose significant
profile helped create space for girls and women in
common ground for horizontal learning and joint
development agendas and in the media. National
problem-solving as well as a stimulating number of
ownership of gender education issues is increasingly
unique challenges.
More
displacing foreign-forced gender agendas.
gender-equity targets are being integrated into
This focus is timely. Year 2000 is assessment year
Globalisation, structural
Education for All.
education
funded
locally
externally
for
and
adjustment and the Asian financial crisis have
programmes. Dynamic dialogue has also become
brought waves of risk to the advancement of girls'
Education
the catalyst for significant policy change:
schooling. Linked is concern that funding of non-
for All
master plans in Thailand and Lao PDR, and
formal education, where significant emphasis targets
Nepal's Plan of Action for women's empowerment
girls and women, may be especially vulnerable to
which give priority to girls' and women's education.
cuts. The weak baseline of gender disaggregated data,
The literacy gap is extreme in three of the countries
limited number of gender-specific goals, and absence
In Nepal and Lao PDR, the literacy of
studied.
of evaluation for gender impact increase the risk.
men is about twice that of women3. In India, there
are more than three literate men for every two
Educating girls is a significant and distinct
literate women4.
challenge from educating boys. Girls face gender-
specific barriers to access and achievement.
Enrolling more girls is pivotal in closing gender gaps.
They are socio-cultural, economic, political and
An estimated 60 millions Indian children aged 6-
structural. They often vary by culture, com-
It can reasonably be argued
14 are not in school.
munity or family. Among the major barriers:
that 70% of these are girls. The gender disparity is
male preference, early marriage, negative
clear in all age groups. The deprivation is doubly
cultural
attitudes towards girls' schooling,
deep for rural girls. Only 30.2%6 of rural girls, age
taboos, resistance to co-ed classes, school
5-9 years, participate in any education programme.
distances that exceed the local security/morality
Regional disparities within India are also sharp.
code, teacher absenteeism that puts girls'
diminished
with
decreases
Girls'
enrolment
security at risk, lack of female teachers,
household income and social status.
irrelevant content, and lack of toilets.
Although millions are yet to be enrolled in India's
Girls' horizons, many of their interests and
schools, there has been progress in reducing Primary
In many
needs, are distinct from those of boys.
In the three-year period ending
(1-5) dropout rates.
cultures, girls do longer hours of daily sibling
1995/96, dropout rates for boys and girls were both
care, housework and fieldwork than boys doe.
reduced by about eight per cent7.
Every moment that is devoted to class or
In Lao PDR 47.1% of girls compared to 27.7% of
homework is precious when time and energy
boys have never been to schoo18. In urban centres, a
are severely restricted by long work hours and,
higher percentage of children go to school but the
frequently, gender-related malnutrition.
In
In rural areas, the gap remains
learning
girls'
many cultures,
unlocking
gender gap worsens.
wide with less than half of girls attending schools'.
potential requires penetrating their ascribed
Regional and ethnic'° disparities are acute. Lowland
passivity to spark the self-confidence to analyse,
Lao comprise 50-55% of the population, yet their
solve problems and express opinions.
1
Synthesis of Five Case Studies
3
southern provinces where conservative Moslem
children are 73% of primary enrolees. Hmong, Yao
religious restrictions lower girls' enrolment. Today's
and Akha, for example, account for approximately
needs are to increase education's relevance for girls
18% of the population but only 5% of primary
and to change attitudes in the private and public
enrolment. More than 50% of ethnic minority girls
sectors so girls and women can put their education
never attend school. Most of those who do, only
to maximum use. Today, the career ladder of women
complete two grades and never achieve literacy. More
is often shorter than that of men.
than 4,000 remote villages have no schools.
Girls in Lao PDR make
Transition rates are poor.
Goals and Progress
up 43% of primary enrolment but only 37% of
secondary and 17% of university enrolments".
Lao PDR:
In Nepa112, nearly one million primary school age
children are not in the schools. Two-thirds are girls.
Inspired by the Jomtien Conference, the new
This is approximately 40% of all primary school-
constitution (1991) made the five years of
The percentage of girls drops with
aged girls.
primary education compulsory. However, by
increasing grades. Dropout and repetition rates are
1994 only one in four children between six
Nearly one in four
alarming for both boys and girls.
and ten years old was attending school'''.
girls drops out of Grade 1 and nearly 40% repeat
This prompted the government to adjust
their first year. Only 37% of girls and 38% of boys
targets for year 2000 to:
provide primary
are expected to complete the five primary grades.
education to 80% of children; increase the
Multiple repetition is common with only 10% of
primary school completion rate to 60% (up
children completing the five primary grades without
from 50% in 1992); and cut repeater rates of
repeating a year.
11% by half.
Indonesian and Thai statistics reflect significantly
Targets included in the Basic Education
more progress in closing the gender gap in primary
(Girls') Project
1999-2005: build 300
schooling. Indonesia has reduced the gender
schools, recruit minority women teachers,
disparity in literacy from 12.5% to 5.4% between
improve teacher training and supervision,
1980 and 1990. By 1996, the female literacy rate
develop new and effective teaching methods
had reached 89%, 3.8% less than the male literacy
for girls.
In the schools, the national enrolment
rate13.
statistics are encouraging. Gross primary school
By year 2000, Lao PDR intends that 80% of
enrolment was 110.3% and net enrolment 93.5%
adults, age 15-40, be literate.
This is
in primary schools in 1994, including Madrasah
measured against a 1992 baseline of 30%.
Ibtida'iyah schools. Primary school completion was
The goal for 2001-2005 is 85%.
80% and the annual drop-out rate had been reduced
The revitalised Non-Formal Education
However, even in Yogyakarta Special
to 1.1%14.
Department in
1993 plans
provide
to
Territory, one of Indonesia's most education-
opportunities for 50% of neo literates to
disparity
still
gender
is
areas,
advantaged
continue in complementary education.
disturbingly real. Three times more girls, than boys,
never go to school". Gender disaggregated data are
not available, but educators estimate that the vast
Thailand:
majority of the one million students who do not go
on to lower secondary school are girls.
No gender disaggregated goals.
Policy makers view gender-specific goals
Thailand has achieved almost 100% enrolment16
unnecessary after statistically closing the
in primary and lower secondary schooling, with
gender gap.
Nearly 100% of primary and
statistics implying no significant gender difference.
lower secondary enrolment
Factors contributing to this achievement are:
has
been
achieved with minimal gender variation. The
Thailand's long history of compulsory education;
adult literacy gap is minor. In 1995, male
long-standing royal patronage of girls' schooling; and
literacy reached 96.0% and female literacy
the resulting high public visibility of educated
91.6%18.
women in traditionally male-dominated professions.
Access is no longer a gender issue except in the four
Girls' and Women's Education: Policies and Implementation Mechanisms
2
today's 48% to 70%. Nepal hopes to reduce
Thailand extended compulsory education
the literacy dropout rate to below 25%, down
from six to nine years in the decade following
from the 29.6% average of the last five years.
1987. Thailand now aims to expand basic
education from nine to 12 years and to
involvement
in
community
increase
India:
education in its Eighth National Plan (1997-
Delivery will be based on the
2001).
Almost 50%21 of girls and women do not have
learning with
philosophy of life-long
the opportunity to gain an education. The
individual choice of formal, non-formal or
from the
those
most unfortunate
are
informal education.
tribes,
scheduled
classes,
scheduled
minorities, and low-income rural areas.
Pre-primary enrolment increased from 44.1%
in 1990 to 81.8% in 1997.
India's education system does not have the
capacity to absorb the girls who want to go
The number of students transitioning from
to school. An intensive girls' enrolment
primary to lower secondary increased from
campaign by the Women's Development
1.2 million to 2.5 million between 1987-
Programme in the early 1990s attracted so
1997.
turned
many girls that Rajasthan teachers
primarily
many away. The rejected girls were
from 'backward and poor' communities.
Nepal:
In
Lack of access remains a serious issue.
goals
education
primary
1998-2002
1997, the UN estimated a shortage of 1.5
specifically directed toward gender equity
million teachers if every child attended
include: increasing the NER of primary-age
school at a teacher-pupil ratio of 1:4022. The
girls from 58% to 85%; ensuring one female
Government of India estimated a 925,000
with
partnering
per
school;
teacher
shortfall.
communities to open 10,000 early childhood
education centres; ensuring a primary school
Indonesia:
is in walking distance of each village.
4,250 female primary teachers were recruited
No gender disaggregated goals in formal
and trained in 1992-97. This achievement
education.
still leaves 40%10 of primary schools without
years of
Indonesia committed to
six
female teachers. MoE plans to increase the
compulsory primary education in 1984. By
proportion of female teachers from 21% to
1994, primary school participation had
30% by 2003.
reached 93.5% (7-12 years)23. In 1995, the
70% of the 1.4 million people who attained
government expanded compulsory education
NFE training
1992-1997
in
to include three additional years of lower
literacy
this
programmes were women. In isolation,
secondary education. By the end of Repilita
Put in proper
is clearly good news.
VII (2004), the government seeks to enrol
perspective, it is far from good enough:
all teenage girls and boys, aged 13 to 15 years,
left behind in
women are increasingly being
in lower secondary education.
the drive for literacy. The gender differential
Indonesia's five-year development plan
in Nepal adult literacy rose from 24% to 27%
(1994-1999) calls for training of women in
between 1985 and 199520. This is doubly
17 educationally disadvantaged provinces24.
disappointing when women have been the
Targets include: management training (1,280
of literacy
initiatives
targets
primary
(14,260
training
vocational
women);
throughout the decade.
women); training linked to income gener-
1998-2002 literacy goals aim to increase
ation (803 women); leadership skills (1,280
women's literacy from 30% to 60% (men's
women); business skills (13,930 women);
from 66% to 80%). This would raise the
and income-generation skills (803 groups).
national literacy rate of 14-45 year olds from
3
Synthesis of Five Case Studies
National Policy
Thailand The National Scheme of Education
(1992) envisions education that is driven by local
Education policy setting remains primarily a
needs and creates holistic, self-reliant individuals
government-centric and male-dominated process.
who are responsible custodians of their environment
is not maximised between line
and sustainable communities. Its Education for All
Collaboration
ministries, within education ministries, or between
master plan (1994), which guides girls and women's
education, focuses on cultivating a youth vision and
government and non-government stakeholders in
education. Barriers and jealousies often exist
ethics, improving the teacher-learning process and
decentralisation. Within this framework, the Office
between formal and non-formal education.
of the National Education Commission (ONEC)
The good news: tradition has been put aside allowing
submits a five-year National Education Devel-
education ministries to participate in multi-partner
opment Plan to the Council of Ministers.
consultation that advanced education policy for girls
The three-party splintering of primary education
and women. The extent and inclusiveness of public
cohesive policy-making
consultation that shaped India's National Policy on
disrupts
delivery
in
The Office of the National Primary
Education25 remain unprecedented in the country
Thailand.
Education Commission (ONPEC) serves the rural
Multi-stakeholder planning
processes guided the
majority while the Ministry of Interior serves
creation of Nepal's Plan of Action for empowerment
municipal areas, excluding metropolitan Bangkok
of women and Lao PDR's Basic Education (Girls')
which is the responsibility of the Education Bureau
INGOs, UN
Participants involved
NGOs,
Project.
donors, line ministries and women's groups. The
of Bangkok.
challenge is to ensure these inclusive processes do
giving legitimacy
Although Jomtien is credited with
not become 'one-off' experiments. Also important
to overhauling Thai education in response to
is for participating stakeholders to have the
globalisation pressures, it did not provoke dialogue
opportunity to monitor and comment on the
on how gender studies or a gender lens could be
policies and programmes.
resulting
integrated into education reform. Girl and women-
specific programming has been relegated
to
India The National Policy on Education, which
non-formal education.
guides education development, is considered a
been made
in
has
progress
breakthrough in addressing gender issues. The
Incremental
District-level needs are
national policy chapter entitled Education for
decentralising planning.
included in provincial plans, developed within
"The National Education
Women's Equality states:
ONPEC's national guidelines.
System will play a positive, interventionist role in
It will foster the
the empowerment of women.
development of new values through redesigned
Lao PDR
The Beijing women's conference in
curricula, textbooks, the training and orientation of
1995 prompted a rare, high-profile call for promoting
teachers, decision-makers and administrators, and
education of females and the underprivileged in Lao
the active involvement of educational institutions.
PDR's Political Report of the VI Party Congress.
...The removal of women's illiteracy and obstacles
However, this has yet to result in specific policy or
inhibiting their access to,
and retention
in,
gender-disaggregated targets for girls' schooling.
elementary education will receive overriding
Earlier, the Prime Ministerial decree of 1993, which
priority."
committed the government to providing basic
education for all adults (age 15-45), was heralded as
Unfortunately, there are few signals of serious effort
important for women. Enthusiasm dampened when
to implement this vision or to replicate the holistic
the vocational training, complementary education
Policies that are critical to
planning process.
and information education initiatives flowing from
increasing girls' access, including flexible school
it were not addressed from a gender perspective.
times and adapted curricula, remain at the micro
level and are not being integrated. Although policy
Although the social impact has yet to be docu-
makers have made commitments
gender
to
mented, concerns mount over the government's
mainstreaming, their subordinates show faint
national development plan, which targets relocating
commitment.
800,000 highland people to the lowlands. This aims
to facilitate reforestation and to bring mountain
4
Girls' and Women's Education: Policies and Implementation Mechanisms
been slow to gain credibility with education
minorities closer to education and health care.
stakeholders. NNFEC overstepped its original
Regrettably, there has been severe social and cultural
mandate to help salvage MoE literacy programme
disruption in some settlement communities where
delivery: this left it without the resources, credibility
hunger, health and education needs are not being
and capacity to do the coordination, awareness-
This, and the policy requiring all formal and
met26.
raising and monitoring it was mandated to do28.
non-formal instruction in the Lao language, are
emerging as inhibitors to providing needs-based
The Central Coordination Committee, chaired by
education to ethnic minorities.
Nepal's Minister of Women & Social Welfare, is
It has the
composed of all ministry secretaries.
Although education policy is centrally controlled,
policy potential to maximise cross-government
officers
district
some
have
provincial
and
efficiencies and opportunities for integrated formal
opportunity to attend policy formation meetings
and non-formal education in the schools, literacy
a valuable orientation to the policy process.
and NFE classes and other extension venues. Yet,
"indifference and resistance" in line ministries is
Nepal
The National Planning Commission
Also largely untapped is the policy
building29.
(NPC), independent and positioned above line
potential of the National Planning Commission to
ministries, is responsible for developing the national
be a similar catalyst for injecting gender equity and
five-year plans approved by parliament. MoE is
efficiency into government initiatives.
responsible for developing the education element
and its component annual workplans, guided by the
Indonesia
Indonesia was earlier than most Asian
Basic & Primary Education Master Plan 1991-2000.
nations in creating a high-level political position to
In 1978, a
Specific policy commitments for increasing girls' and
promote the advancement of women.
women's participation in education have been
junior minister was appointed to be responsible for
the Role of Women. In 1983, the position was
identified in five-year plans for more than 20 years.
Yet there is sparse impact of Nepal having some of
elevated to that of a state minister. Two of the five
the earliest and most enlightened gender education
priorities of the women's ministry are to increase
the level of women's education and skills and to
policy in Asia. The problems start with the policy-
making process.
develop a socio-cultural climate more conducive to
the advancement of women.
The MoE has a tightly centralised policy and
planning process that excludes the front-line
The women's ministry is responsible for developing
experience of district education officers and their
policy and strategy for girls' and women's education
supervisors. Also excluded are non-government
planning
and
for
ministry
lead
while
the
organisations which are the primary delivery agents
implementation is the Ministry of Education &
of non-formal education, the private sector which
Culture (MoEC). The National Planning Bureau
provides primary education to 8% of Nepal's primary
(BAPPENAS) facilitates development of the national
students, and most important, the communities.
government's five-year plans, using ministry input,
Most school management and village education
and allocates budgets to ministries. The ministries
committees are dysfunctional27.
of Home Affairs and Religious Affairs also have
education delivery roles. Policy-making is hierarchi-
Nepal has structures that are yet to achieve their
Provincial and district MoEC
cal and centralised.
potential in gaining the essential collaboration to
offices operationalize plans but do not participate
develop and implement holistic education policy for
in making them. Community input is marginal to
girls and women. Strategic partnering between the
non-existent.
MoE and the Ministry of Women & Social Welfare
is relatively undeveloped. Also embryonic are
Although the women's ministry is to coordinate all
working relationships between the two councils
ministries and organisations involved in women's
allied to these ministries that foster civil society
affairs, it has yet to become a significant catalyst
development and NGO delivery of education and
for interministry cooperation. Untapped potential
exists to facilitate cohesive, gender-responsive
gender equity programmes.
education planning and gender-disaggregated data
In addition, these councils (Social Welfare Council
collection.
and National Non-Formal Education Council) have
5
Synthesis of Five Case Studies
teachers; Operation Blackboard, launched in 1987,
The ministry and its gender sensitisation efforts are
which encouraged appointing a second teacher in
credited with influencing a policy shift. The current
national grants-in-aid to
single-teacher schools;
1994-1999 workplan for the women's ministry calls
state governments to set up NFE centres for out-of-
for eradicating female illiteracy, more leadership
school children, with 100% central funds promised
training of women, and gender training of planners
it also calls for
for NFE centres for girls; and a similar scheme for
and programmers. Although
innovations in elementary education. These created
improving the quality of women as human resources
space for valuable local-specific experimentation to
in development, suggesting women are viewed as
meet girls' needs. Some Indian NGOs also offer
passive, production inputs, the workplan breaks new
experience as co-ops responding to the life-long
ground. It is a distinct move away from Indonesian
learning needs of their women members.
stereotyping of women as responsible for, and
confined to, the domestic domain.
Thailand with
The main office
specific
in
programmes for women is the Office of Non-Formal
It was the catalyst for non-
Education (ONFE).
Strategies
formal student enrolments increasing from 2.0
million to 4.2 million in four years (1992-1996).
Strengthening Non-Formal
ONFE's experience in empowering women through
Education
literacy suggests that life-long learning opportunities
may be key to literacy retention and in supporting
Women and girls are the primary target of non-
they engage
women as
education
local
in
formal education programmes in the five countries
committees and other public fora. However, ONFE's
studied. The ability of non-formal education to be
1996 proposal to open a Centre for Women's Life-
innovative, empowering, flexible and responsive to
long Learning was rejected by the cabinet.
This
girls' and women's needs is well documented in
slowed momentum, although activity on this front
micro projects in each country. Experience in these
is being renewed after a recent injection of funds.
countries shows clearly that where non-formal
education has status, good management and
Within ONFE, women and girls are categorised as a
resources, millions may benefit. Where non-formal
disadvantaged target group. This imposes restric-
education is undervalued, it flounders. Also evident,
So does the tendency of ministries to avoid
tions.
in some countries, is the conditionality of the
gender issues by relegating them to the National
professed priority given to non-formal education.
Commission of Women's Affairs. Both trends could
also lead to the government marginalizing gender
In Nepal, non-formal education is proving more
issues. In addition, the education system resists
effective than formal education in promoting adult
increasing the low pay of literacy teachers and has
in India non-formal
By contrast,
literacy30.
eliminated ONFE's monitoring programme. Both
education is only touching its potential. Less than
are warning flags. They signal that the priority of
0.5% of rural girls aged 10-19 participate in non-
women and of non-formal education is not as deep
Rural participation rates
formal or adult education.
as espoused.
in non-formal and adult education are very low, and
even lower for women than men. Sample surveys
Monitoring and evaluation are also major needs in
indicate that not more than two to four women per
Nepal. Nepal's Cheli-beti Programme34 was widely
thousand participate31.
believed to have triggered girls' self-discovery of how
to improve their village life. It has inspired, and been
Public funding of non-formal education in India was
modified into, Nepal's out-of-school literacy pro-
widely considered morally indefensible32 for decades
gram. Unfortunately, no impact evaluation has been
and only gained official sanction in 1986 to reach
done on the original project since its completion
backward regions. Non-formal education is still
Hence, the programmes modelled
eight years ago.
characterised by restrictive government control and
on it operate without either qualitative or quanti-
low status. Girls' and women's literacy programming
Cheli-beti is
tative data on their sustainability.
suffers as a direct result.
symptomatic of the lack of regular, meaningful
monitoring of girls' and women's education in
Among India's non-formal education approaches
Nepal.
are: residential condensed education programmes33
designed to create a cadre of confident women
6
Girls' and Women's Education: Policies and Implementation Mechanisms
(PKK) to ensure participation. The PICK, referred to
Nepal's National Non-Formal Education Council
as the leading national women's NGO by the current
(NNFEC) has partnered extensively with the non-
government, is a mandatory membership organis-
government sector in literacy development and
ation for wives of public servants. The Minister of
Most recently, the Council and World
delivery.
Home Affairs' wife is the nation-wide chair. The
Education co-developed, field-tested and printed
Policy
wife of each village chief is the village chair.
Nepal's first post-literacy package. The NNFEC is
and direction flows from the top.
also working with UNICEF on developing an earn-
and-learn nine-month literacy course aimed at
The PICK, instrumental in government-funded out-
giving street children Grade 5 equivalency.
of-school education for girls and women, has been
internationally acclaimed for its role in decreasing
A Girls & Ethnic Minority Unit is being proposed
Indonesia's birth rate to 1.2%. However, its strong
to supervise Lao PDR's Basic Education (Girls)
political presence, and the government's preference
Project. At project completion, plans call for it to
that multilateral and bilateral education donors
become a permanent unit in MoE's non-formal
also viewed as a
partner with the PKK, is
This suggestion, which
education department.
considerable obstacle to an emerging NGO network
would bring energy, leadership and priority to girls'
and the strengthening of a grassroots women's
non-formal education, is being enthusiastically
movement. The PKK is embedded into the Ministry
gender-sensitive
welcomed. As
Thailand,
in
of Home Affairs, giving it substantive political
communications within MoE and with other
Its functions
support and government funding.
education stakeholders will be needed to ensure that
often overlap and restrict the impact of the
"pigeon-holing" the needs of girls and women does
Indonesian Women's Congress (KOWANI), the
not impede mainstreaming.
national coordinator of grassroots women's NGOs.
Substantive work has been done since 1994 by the
The Indonesian government's commitment to non-
Laotian Department of Non-Formal Education
formal education for poor women will be clear in
(DoNFE) project funded by UNESCO and NORAD
whatever efforts it takes to sustain, or build on, the
Ecole
in credit and skill-linked women's literacy.
seven-year World Bank project that ends in 1999.
Sans Frontiers is implementing the project which
is developing curricula, materials and training
models in preparation for large-scale expansion and
Targeting Ethnic Minority
adaptation for groups of ethnic minority and
and Rural Women
disadvantaged women. Central to the project are
community learning centres (CLCs). Lao PDR's six-
Ethnic minority and disadvantaged rural girls and
year experience with CLCs, a partnership of the
women are emerging as having the highest illiteracy
DoNFE and several INGOs, is currently being
most
The
under
study.
countries
rate
in
evaluated to inform government policy and planning
comprehensive programme being developed to
in this area.
address ethnic minority needs is the Basic Education
(Girls) Project in Lao PDR (1999-2005). Ethnic
Indonesia's Directorate of Community Education
minorities make up nearly half of the national
(DIKMAS), responsible for non-formal education,
population. Minority girls and women have the
has a sub-directorate in charge of women's and girls'
lowest literacy and school enrolment levels. Most
out-of-school education. Indonesia has a wide menu
live in mountainous areas, accessible only by
literacy classes;
of out-of-school programming:
walking path in the dry season.
equivalency
secondary
lower
and
primary
programmes; continuing education and post-literacy
If the programme proceeds as envisioned, it will
training,
income-
skills
integrating
training
build 300 schools, pilot new girl-responsive teaching
generation and apprenticeships; and community
methods and train more female teachers from
Priority is given to women's literacy
preschooling.
It will have complementary
minority communities.
and skill training linked to family planning,
formal and non-formal components.
maternal and child health, and micro business.
There are signals that the government of Lao PDR
Non-formal education in Indonesia operates in a
has recognised that exclusive use of Lao as the
unique environment, with periodic involvement of
language of instruction has been counter-productive
the military and significant involvement by the
to enrolment, achievement and literacy retention
government-directed Family Welfare Movement
7
Synthesis of Five Case Studies
the past. The District Primary Education Pro-
in ethnic minority groups. The MoE is considering
gramme was designed to counteract social injury
permitting teaching
innovative
change:
an
caused by India's structural adjustment programme.
assistants who speak the local language to co-teach
A portion of the SAP loan is being invested in
in rural ethnic areas.
primary health, subsidised food grain, retraining and
In Thailand, Bangkok-based Buddhist-oriented
basic education. Multi-dimensional inputs into the
same geographic areas are used to collectively
education has been identified as contributing to the
low enrolment and literacy of Muslim girls and
generate the conditions for more girls and women
women in the four southern provinces.
to get an education. Bridging the gender gap
is
subsumed in the equity agenda,
alongside social
The extreme disparity in urban-rural literacy has
The first three years show
and economic distress.
literacy
Nepal's
India's
both
and
focused
significant increases in girls' enrolment in some
programmes on rural women. Indonesia's primary
DPEP districts compared to non-DPEP districts.
literacy targets are the swelling number of illiterate
urban poor and disadvantaged rural women.
Thai and Indonesian schools operate on a gender-
neutral basis. The few programmes which target girls
(See non formal
and women are primarily NFE.
Launching Innovative Programmes
education section above)
for Girls and Women
Thailand's big advance into innovation is in life-
Power-sharing in education has always been and will
In tandem with expanding all Thai
long learning.
citizens' rights to 12 years of basic education,
remain contentious. India's Shiksha Karmi project
is a compromise attempt to bridge the contention
Thailand is diversifying its education offerings. The
and government sensitivity to creating autonomous,
government aims to offer schooling, curriculum-
parallel structures for education delivery.
equivalent continuing education, community-driven
non-formal education and for-credit informal
The Swedish-funded Rajasthan Shiksha Karmi
learning. This wide choice should boost access for
project, set up in 1986/87, launched the govern-
girls and women.
ment-sponsored NGO model that has subsequently
been widely used for the Total Literacy Campaign
Linked to life-long learning is Thailand's creation
Shiksha Karmi is
and special project delivery.
of a vocational, as well as a general, stream in
registered as a traditional NGO but with one
secondary education. This initiative may provide
the Education Secretary of
insight to Asian countries on life-long learning,
significant difference:
the state is the ex-officio NGO head. The structure
prevocational or vocational training approaches.
aims to couple the NGO strengths of flexibility and
Lao PDR offers a model of national systematic
legitimacy and
openness with the
outreach,
This was seen as a
partnership between government and the women's
authority of government.
network. Central to many girls' and women's
necessary mechanism to mobilise out-of-school
initiatives is participation by the Lao Women's
children in remote areas through pars teachers.
It
Union which has organisational links to women
was argued that the rigid school system would not
from the national to village level. Mainstream
relax its rules to permit either the recruitment of
examples are the ADB-funded Basic Education
pars teachers or the intensive support and training
(Girls') Project and the UNDP/NORAD-funded
they would need.
Gender Resource & Information Development
An assessment of 10 such hybrid NGOs showed
Project. The Lao Women's Union is central to the
they were successful in empowering poor rural
project's capacity building of skills to collect and
However, interaction
women through education.
analyse data for development planning of gender-
with mainline education departments has been
aware education.
minimal. The experience of these programs has not
Indonesia, China and Pakistan are cooperating with
education.
mainstream
integrated
into
been
UNESCO to empower women farmers, one of the
Relationships have sometimes become adversarial
most disadvantaged groups in the three partner
and programmes ghettoised.
countries. The aim is to identify and implement a
India is also pioneering a more multi-sectoral
practical multi-channel learning programme. A
recent35 evaluation reafirms the need for this
approach to girls' and women's education than in
8
Girls' and Women's Education: Policies and Implementation Mechanisms
10
