ERIC ED452376: Contextual Teaching and Learning: Preparing Students for the New Economy. The Highlight Zone: Research @ Work No. 5.

10 Pages·2001·0.23 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
CE 081 643
ED 452 376
Berns, Robert G.; Erickson, Patricia M.
AUTHOR
Contextual Teaching and Learning: Preparing Students for the
TITLE
New Economy. The Highlight Zone: Research © Work No. 5.
National Dissemination Center for Career and Technical
INSTITUTION
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Office of Vocational and Adult Education (ED), Washington,
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Constructivism (Learning); Context Effect; Critical
DESCRIPTORS
Thinking; *Education Work Relationship; Educational Change;
Educational Needs; *Educational Practices; *Educational
Theories; Educational Trends; Group Activities; Multiple
Intelligences; Problem Solving; Secondary Education; Service
Learning; Teacher Role
*Contextual Learning; *Contextualized Instruction; Self
IDENTIFIERS
Direction
ABSTRACT
Contextual teaching and learning (CTL), which is still being
designed and implemented, is a conception of teaching and learning that helps
teachers relate subject matter content to real-world situation, and motivates
students to make connections between knowledge and its applications to their
lives as family members, citizens, and workers. Educational theories and
themes that relate to CTL include knowledge-based constructivism,
effort-based learning and incremental theory of intelligence, socialization,
situated learning, and distributed learning. Approaches for implementing CTL
include problem-based learning, cooperative learning, project-based learning,
service learning, and work-based learning. CTL requires that teachers plan
lessons that are developmentally appropriate for students; include
interdependent learning groups; provide for an environment that supports
self-regulated learning; consider the diversity of students; addresses the
multiple intelligences of students (including questioning techniques that
enhance student learning and problem-solving skills); and include authentic
assessment. In implementing CTL, teachers serve as facilitators, organizers,
role models, learning mentors, content specialists, and knowledge dispensers.
CTL increasingly is becoming a part of reforms of both career and technical
education and academic education. (This document includes a description of an
example high school course CTL project that integrates English, mathematics,
and career and technical education, and a list of seven inservice
professional development projects. (Contains 31 references.)
(KC)
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
from the original document.
2001
Contextual Teaching and Learning:
Preparing Students for the New Economy
no. 5
by Robert G. Berns and Patricia M. Erickson
A national conversation has emerged in recent years regarding the best way of teaching to attain higher
student achievement. Since the hallmark report A Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence
in Education 1983), calls for school reform to produce more effective schools as measured by the achieve-
ment of all students have inundated the country. This focus on student achievement, often measured by
standardized tests in such academic areas as reading, mathematics, and science, has challenged career and
technical educators. At the same time, the global economy and competitive marketplace, the changing
nature of jobs, and advancing technology have influenced career and technical education (CTE) curricu-
lum. In addition, changes in the demographic characteristics of students and the growing body of knowl-
edge about how people learn and what makes for effective teaching have caused career and technical
educators to reexamine the basic principles and methodology of career and technical education.
From Behaviorism to Constructivism
and Contextual Teaching and Learning
The early 20th-century roots of career and technical education can be found in the theories proposed by
David Snedden and Charles Prosser, who suggested that the public schools were an arm of the social
system of our society and, thereby, had an inherent mission to further the good of society by contributing
to its social efficiency. Then called vocational education, CTE offered a means of preparing well-trained,
compliant workers for that efficient society. At the same time, an emerging teaching and learning theory,
behaviorism, was proposed in which E. L. Thorndike suggested that learning resulted from links formed
between stimuli and responses through the application of rewards. Schools would teach students the right
work and moral habits. Behaviorism has served as the basic teaching and learning model for CTE (Doolittle
and Camp 1999). It continues to be seen in performance objectives, criterion-referenced measures, task
lists as a source of curriculum, and specific, predetermined skills demonstrated to industry standards.
Another theory developed at about the same time (1910-1920) was constructivism. In this teaching and
learning model, students construct their own knowledge by testing ideas based on prior knowledge and
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
experience, applying these ideas to a new situation, and integrating the new knowledge gained with pre-
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
existing intellectual constructs. Rooted in the theories of John Dewey (1900), constructivism calls for
CENTER (ERIC)
active participation in problem solving and critical thinking regarding an authentic learning activity that
41' This document has been reproduced
as
received from the person or organization
students find relevant and engaging (Briner 1999).
originating it.
3 Minor changes have been made to
improve reproduction quality.
Although both theories involve student participation, CTE has not tended to include constructivist ap-
Points of view or opinions stated in this
proaches to the extent it has embraced behaviorism. More specifically, although Prosser and the field of
document do not necessarily represent
vocational education embraced the engaging element of constructivism, the nature of the curriculum
official OERI position or policy.
more appropriately lent itself to the approaches of behaviorism. Through the years, CTE teaching and
learning approaches have included both direct instruction (usually individual, drill-and-practice exercises
based on behaviorism) and projects (sometimes group activities that may or may not exhibit the charac-
The Highlight Zone: Re-
teristics of constructivism). An example of direct instruction is an expert demonstrating to students in a
search @ Work is designed
horticulture class how to plant roses, followed by students indivdivally planting their own roses with the
to highlight research find-
instructor monitoring and providing feedback as the students practice. The same class may be planning a
ings and provide a synthe-
sis of other information
service project as members of the FFA student organization, in which they plan to provide gifts for the
sources. The intention is
residents of a local nursing home during a holiday season. Although this project may not exhibit all of the
)r) to help practitioners ap-
characteristics of constructivism, it would have the potential to do so.
ply and adapt research
results for local use.
As direct instruction followed by practicing specific skills offers a behavioristic means for teaching and
learning, contextual teaching and learning (CTL) provides a constructivist model. For this service project
onnv.Erocete.courn)
to represent constructivism through CTL, the teaching and learning processes must include the charac-
teristics of CTL. Although direct instruction may be appropriate for helping students reach certain learn-
L.)
2
ing goals, CTL provides the means for
ries, testing, and writings. More contem-
methodologies" (Center for Occupational
porary work has included syntheses by
reaching other sets of learning goals that
Research and Development 2000, online,
require higher-order thinking skills.
Resnick and Hall (1998) and themes iden-
n.p.).
tified by Borko and Putnam (1998). Ex-
Definition of CTL
Characteristics of Contextual
amples of theories and themes that relate
to CTL follow:
Teaching and Learning
The contextual teaching and learning ini-
Knowledge-based constructivismBoth
tiative is a work in progress. University fac-
CTL can be more fully described by iden-
direct instruction and constructivist activi-
ulty, in collaboration with P-12 educators,
tifying its characteristics. These attributes
ties can be compatible and effective in the
are involved in a variety of projects to study
include its interdisciplinary and contextual
achievement of learning goals (Resnick
the teaching and learning process. In ad-
nature, approaches that can be used to
and Hall 1998).
dition, they continue to research ways to
implement it, factors that address indi-
organize the many bodies of knowledge
vidual needs of students, and the teacher's
Effort-based learning/incremental theory
that address various aspects of teaching and
role.
of intelligenceIncreasing one's efforts
learning.
results in more ability. This theory opposes
Interdisciplinary Learning,
the notion that one's aptitude is unchange-
The first of eight recent projects sponsored
Problem-based Learning, and
able. Striving for learning goals motivates
by the Office of Vocational and Adult Edu-
External Contexts for Learning
an individual to be engaged in activities
cation, U.S. Department of Education was
with a commitment to learning (ibid.).
conducted at The Ohio State University
For instructional processes to be CTL,
in partnership with Bowling Green State
learning must be extended across disci-
SocializationChildren learn the stan-
University. A preliminary definition of CTL
plines so that students gain a real-life per-
dards, values, and knowledge of society by
emerged from that study (Contextual
spective. They see how the knowledge and
raising questions and accepting challenges
Teaching and Learning 2000):
skills relate to their lives either now or in
to find solutions that are not immediately
the future. Real-world situations and prob-
apparent, along with explaining concepts,
Contextual teaching and learning is a
lems rarely represent only one discipline.
justifying their reasoning, and seeking in-
conception of teaching and learning
formation (ibid.). Indeed, learning is a so-
that helps teachers relate subject
The intent is also for the level of learning
cial process, requiring social and cultural
matter content to real world situa-
to rise so the students can better under-
factors to be considered during instruc-
tions; and motivates students to
stand life situations (e.g., those presented
tional planning. This social nature of learn-
make connections between knowl-
at the workplace), identify and effectively
ing also drives the determination of the
edge and its applications to their lives
solve problems, make wise decisions, and
learning goals (Borko and Putnam 1998).
as family members, citizens, and
think creatively. Thus, if students are en-
workers and engage in the hard work
gaged in a classroom research project in
Situated learningKnowledge and learn-
that learning requires.
which they are studying city plans to
ing are situated in particular physical and
change a natural preserve to a housing
social contexts. A range of settings may be
Thus, CTL helps students connect the
development near the school, they would
used such as the home, the community,
content they are learning to the life con-
need to be learning and applying language
and the workplace, depending on the pur-
texts in which that content could be used.
arts, mathematics, and scientific knowl-
pose of instruction and the intended learn-
Students then find meaning in the learn-
edge while addressing the agricultural is-
ing goals (ibid.).
ing process. As they strive to attain learn-
sues inherent in such a situation. Whether
ing goals, they draw upon their previous
the agriculture teacher is the only instruc-
Distributed learningKnowledge may be
experiences and build upon existing knowl-
tor involved, or a team of teachers from
viewed as distributed or stretched over
edge. By learning subjects in an integrated,
the academics and CTE subject areas are
(Lave 1988) the individual, other persons,
multidisciplinary manner and in appropri-
collaborating, the learning goals would
and various artifacts such as physical and
ate contexts, they are able to use the ac-
transcend one specific discipline.
symbolic tools (Salomon 1993) and not
quired knowledge and skills in applicable
solely as a property of individuals. Thus,
contexts (Berns and Erickson 2001).
The learning goals may be based on (1)
people, as an integral part of the learning
state, local, and/or professional association
process, must share knowledge and tasks
Underlying Support for CTL
content standards from the involved dis-
(Borko and Putnam 1998).
ciplines; (2) such skills as the Secretary's
For CTL to be considered a legitimate
Commission on Achieving Necessary Skills
Working together, these theories and oth-
pedagogy to be applied with students, it
(SCANS 1991), WorkKeys® (ACT 2001),
ers serve as underlying principles upon
must be based on sound educational prin-
and other family, employability, and pro-
which the CTL conception and process is
ciples, theories, and practices. CTL builds
cess competencies; and (3) higher-order
based. Indeed, "the contextual approach
upon bodies of literature that include theo-
thinking skills such as problem solving,
recognizes that learning is a complex and
ries and writings by Dewey (1900), Piaget
critical thinking, and decision making.
multifaceted process that goes far beyond
(1929), Bruner (1966), and others. Thus,
drill-oriented, stimulus-and-response
it is an extension of past thinking, theo-
3
In this example, various aspects of prob-
meaningful tasks, allows students to work
In CTL, experiences help students make
lem-based learning, project-based learning,
autonomously to construct their own learn-
connections with both internal and exter-
and service learning merge into a learning
ing, and culminates in realistic products
nal contexts. They begin with their exist-
experience for the students. CTL requires
(Buck Institute for Education 2001).
ing knowledge, past experiences, and other
these approaches to be used in a more ho-
current classes or situations (Berns and
listic manner than often used in the past.
Service learningan approach that pro-
Erickson 2001) and conduct activities in
Again, CTE instructors may already use
vides a practical application of newly ac-
such external contexts as the school, home,
this type of activity in their class or in their
quired (or developing) knowledge and
workplace, and the Internet. These expe-
CTE student organization; however, how
skills to needs in the community through
riences result in a deeper understanding
it is donethe amount and nature of the
projects and activities (McPherson 2001).
so that students are more likely to retain
student participation, for exampledeter-
competencies for a longer period of time
Work-based learningan approach in
mines the extent to which the project rep-
and be able to apply them in appropriate
resents CTL.
which workplace, or workplace-like, activi-
ways at appropriate times in the future.
ties are integrated with classroom content
Factors that Address
for the benefit of students and often busi-
Thus, the integration of academic and ca-
Individual Needs of Students
nesses (Smith 2001).
reer-technical education helps the student
understand the content of both the aca-
For the instructional process to be consid-
Many CTE instructional models provide a
demic subject matter and the subject mat-
ered to be contextual teaching and learn-
format to allow for these CTL approaches:
ter of the career and technical area of study.
ing, teachers must address the following
cooperative education, work experience
All teachers, individually or in teams of
factors when using one or more of the CTL
programs, internships (paid and unpaid),
career-technical and academic teachers,
approaches (Berns and Erickson 2001).
apprenticeships, in-school laboratories,
can use CTL to increase student learning
These concepts are based on cognitive re-
simulations, and school-based enterprises.
and achievement in such integration ef-
search that has provided a rich knowledge
However, these models do not automati-
forts, thus resulting in better meeting the
base on how people learn. Teachers must
cally use the CTL process. To do so, the
purposes, goals, and objectives of specific
teachers need to include the characteris-
schools, classes, and education in general.
plan lessons that are developmentally ap-
tics of CTL identified in this section.
propriate for the students. The relation-
Approaches for Implementing CTL
ship between curriculum content and
Activities and projects sponsored by career-
methods used to teach students must be
technical student organizations may also
To implement CTL, a variety of teaching
based on the particular levels of the stu-
include various attributes of CTL. For ex-
approaches may be used. Over the years,
dents' social, emotional, and intellectual
ample, if the FFA service project for a nurs-
five teaching approaches have emerged
development. Thus, the age of the stu-
ing home cited earlier were to be based on
that include context as a critical compo-
dents, other individual characteristics,
the problem-based learning approach, the
nent. They engage students in an active
and their social and cultural environment
students would have identified the specific
learning process. These approaches are not
must be taken into consideration. What
project after being presented with a "fuzzy"
discrete. They can be used individually or
a high school senior is ready to learn and
situation, such as "a nursing home in town
in conjunction with one or more of the oth-
do, for instance, may be quite different
might have some needs." The students
ers. Although varying in the literature, the
than a high school sophomore (Kilmer
would then spend time in the nursing
following definitions are intended to cap-
2001).
home. They might find that the residents'
ture the essence of the concepts as means
include interdependent learning groups.
rooms are not very colorful. They would
for implementing CTL:
'Through small groups, students learn
then organize themselves into small groups
from each other and learn to work in
and work on solving the problem. In the
Problem-based learningan approach
teams, quality circles, and other forms of
process, they might write messages to each
that engages learners in problem-solving
collaboration that are required of adults
other, calculate the mathematics to deter-
in the workplace and in other contexts
investigations that integrate skills and con-
mine the resources needed for driving to
in which students will be expected to
cepts from many content areas. This ap-
and from the nursing home, verbally com-
proach includes gathering information
function.
municate with the school and nursing
provide for an environment that supports
around a question, synthesizing it, and pre-
self-regulated learning. Students need to
home administrators, and apply whatever
senting findings to others (Moffitt 2001).
understand their strengths and weak-
career-technical skills are intended (e.g.,
nesses, to set attainable goals, and to de-
Cooperative learningan approach that
the preparation of floral arrangements, if a
velop strategies to achieve their goals. As
horticulture class). The students would
organizes instruction using small learning
they learn these skills, they gain self-con-
orient the nursing home administrators and
groups in which students work together to
fidence and competence. They now un-
provide a debriefing following the place-
achieve learning goals (Holubec 2001).
derstand the importance of taking time
ment of the arrangements in the rooms.
to think and reflect on options before
The project, then, would be intended to
Project-based learningan approach that
plunging forward during life's challenges.
reach specified learning goals from math-
focuses on the central concepts and prin-
Through self-regulated learning, teachers
and horticulture
ematics, language arts,
ciples of a discipline, involves students in
also create an environment in which stu-
as identified in the standards and curricu-
problem-solving investigations and other
dents reflect on how they learn, how they
lum.
4
approach schoolwork, how they could
mentor, content specialist, and knowledge
phisticated computers, and the need for a
deal with obstacles, and how they could
dispenser. Although the teacher can imple-
more thorough knowledge of the whole
work in harmony with others. With CTL
ment CTL individually, teacher collabora-
business environment (ibid.) characterizes
approaches requiring group work, stu-
tion maximizes interdisciplinary learning.
the world for which CTE and, indeed, all
dents need to be able to contribute so that
For teachers to be effective using CTL, they
of education, is preparing its youth.
their group will be successful (Winograd
must be prepared to understand its vari-
and Paris 2001).
ous aspects. Models for preparing current
Lynch (2000) also cites the following di-
include consideration of the diversity of
and future teachers are currently under
rections of the new career and technical edu-
students. Teachers must teach to a wide
development through activities funded by
cation (p. 1):
range of students. Considerations include
the U.S. Department of Education. These
students' racial and ethnic backgrounds,
projects are described later.
Preparing students with the education
their socioeconomic status, their primary
and technical skills they will need for suc-
household language, and any disabilities
School Reform, Career-
cessful employment in various careers or
they may have. For example, teachers
professions
Technical Education, and
evaluate materials for sex bias and ste-
Teaching students about all aspects of an
reotyping. They also plan and react to lan-
CT's Role
industry
guage so that students overcome language
Enhancing academics by bringing real-
barriers to learning (Sapon-Shevin 2001).
CTL is an instructional process. As such,
world context and applicationespecially
address the multiple intelligences of stu-
it is increasingly being used by schools
targeted to workplacesto education
dents. When using a CTL approach, the
within their school reform efforts. CTL can
Teaching students how to apply high-level
ways particular students in the class learn
serve as the pedagogical component of this
math, science, technology, and language
best need to be considered. Gardner
reform in all subjects and at all grade lev-
in workplaces and communities
(1993) has identified eight learning ori-
els for all students. It provides a means for
Preparing high school students for college,
entations that involve such factors as
should they and their families choose for
teaching to be improved within the vary-
hearing or seeing language, involvement,
them to attend
ing innovative initiatives designed to pro-
music, numbers, visualization, human
Preparing students with the academic
duce increased learning by all students.
movement, interaction with others, and
foundation to be lifelong learners
leading. Teachers embed within the CTL
As part of the reform effort, career and
approach strategies that make instruction
For the new CTE to be successful, the in-
technical education is developing and
effective for students of varying intelli-
structional process must change. In the
gences (Brockman and Brockman 2001).
implementing a variety of models for orga-
past, career and technical education cre-
include questioning techniques that en-
nizing schools and programs in a way that
ated and followed a task-based curriculum.
hance student learning and the develop-
makes sense to students, brings meaning
Students were prepared to perform the
ment of problem solving and other higher-
to the classroom in the form of relation-
order thinking skills. For CTL to achieve
specific duties required of a job. Although
ships between subject matter and careers,
its goals, appropriate types and levels of
learning skills to perform such tasks may
and elevates the level of learning by all stu-
questions must be asked. Questions must
be important in some CTE programs, CTL
dents. Career academies, majors, and path-
be carefully planned to produce the in-
requires that portion of the curriculum to
ways as well as tech prep are examples of
tended level of thinking, responses, and
be placed in a broader framework that in-
these models.
actions by students and all
participants
tegrates other subject content into the
in the CTL approach (Frazee 2001).
learning process for the students. Learn-
At the same time, CTE is increasingly be-
include authentic assessment. Authentic
ing goals are elevated to higher-order
ing seen as a means for enhancing academ-
assessment evaluates a student's applica-
thinking skills in the process of learning
ics. By providing a curriculum that is based
tion of knowledge and complex thinking,
how to find information, adapt to change,
on the need for students to demonstrate
rather than rote recall of factual informa-
and communicate effectively while relat-
mastery of rigorous industry standards, high
tion. The interdisciplinary nature of CTL
ing appropriately to others.
academic standards and related general
requires assessment that measures knowl-
education knowledge, technology, and gen-
edge and skills in more than one disci-
Thus, a more constructivist, CTL approach
eral employment competencies, CTE
pro-
pline and in multiple ways (Ananda
to teaching and learning is required. Con-
vides an avenue for school reform,
espe-
2001).
textual teaching and learning provides a
cially at the high school level.
means for developing career-related and
The Teacher's Role
academic competencies at a high level.
An intent of all of these concepts is in-
Although CTE was at the forefront of re-
creased student learning. However, the
For the CTL approaches to be most effec-
lating subject matter to real world situa-
ideas also respond to the needs of a
new
tive in student learning, teachers must
tions, the constructivist approach, as em-
economy that Lynch (2000) suggests is a
plan, implement, reflect upon, and revise
bodied in the various aspects of CTL, has
major influence on the entire educational
lessons. Such plans are based on CTL prin-
not been the usual instructional process.
system. A new world of fast communica-
ciples and approaches that require teach-
tion, rapid decision making, international
ers to serve in the following roles: facilita-
activity, cyberspace, ever-changing market
tor, organizer of the teaching/leaming/as-
demands and standards, increasingly
so-
sessment process, role model, learning
It is now early October, and the class is
An Lxample
After full discussion, the class, teacher, and
about to begin a unit on marketing re-
Mr. Smith agree that a survey of the com-
munity to determine the level of support
Envision a high school faculty lounge 2
search. After having spent a month plan-
ning for this project with the other two
days before the school year is to begin in for a dinner theatre would be the market-
ing research project. This pursuit will be
teachers, the marketing teacher tells her
the fall. One of the career-technical mar-
authentic in that the results will actually
junior class that they will be learning mar-
keting teachers is discussing her junior class
keting research by conducting a class
be used in the community. At the conclu-
with two of her colleagues, a math teacher
project. She says that their English and
sion of the project, the final report will be
and an English teacher, who also teach jun-
mathematics teachers will be involved
shared with members of the Chamber of
iors. Concerned about students who often
along with the local Chamber of Com-
Commerce at one of their regular evening
lack interest in academic subjects, they
meetings. The students are quite enthused
think some sort of cross-course activity
merce. She has made an appointment with
Jim Smith, the director of the Chamber,
at the possibility of their work eventually
might be more motivating. The marketing
and would like an officer of the class
resulting in an actual new business being
teacher suggests the three of them collabo-
rate on using contextual teaching and
DECA chapter to accompany her to his
opened in the community.
office downtown to invite him to their
learning, a concept she had learned in a
As the project is being identified, the
class. A few days later, the DECA presi-
professional development activity last year.
teacher considers the extent to which it
dent and marketing teacher extend the
would be developmentally appropriate.
invitation to Mr. Smith, and he enthusias-
She tells them how problem-based, project-
based, and cooperative learning can be
Since the students are high school juniors,
tically accepts.
used to increase student achievement.
she feels they have the prerequisite skills
The teacher follows up the visit with a
to complete the project successfully. She
Specifically, she suggests they have the stu-
dents complete a marketing research
decides the project will, indeed, be appro-
phone call to Mr. Smith to discuss the goals
of the class and his potential role in the
priate while providing experiences that will
project. Such a project could be designed
lead the students to the standards set for
for the students to meet two marketing
upcoming project. The following week, Mr.
state and local standards (Vocational In-
Smith visits the class. He tells the students
the class.
of the community's master economic de-
structional Materials Laboratory 1995): (1)
In planning the project so that individual
use marketing information to make deci-
velopment plan, which will include the de-
student needs will be met, the teacher con-
velopment of housing divisions, business
sions, and (2) conduct marketing research
siders the diversity of the learners. Realiz-
strip centers, and light industry.
(including develop research materials, col-
ing that the students need to learn to work
lect data, etc.).
Looking at the plan, he asks the students
effectively in groups consisting of diverse
individuals, she carefully places students
what they see as a need for the commu-
Such a project would require students to
nity. The teacher then places the students
into groups with the assistance of her En-
learn both marketing and academic sub-
glish and mathematics colleagues so that
ject matter in English and mathematics.
in small groups of four. During the group
work, the teacher and Mr. Smith travel
the composition includes variance in abil-
The following language arts and mathemat-
ity level, communication skills, maturity
from table to table helping the students in
ics standards would apply (VIML 1999):
level, and background. The groups are as-
the process. A leader from each group then
Apply measurement and spatial skills
reports the group's ideas to the full class.
signed roles such as survey instrument, data
Apply statistical analysis skills
analysis, graphs and charts, final report, and
Analyze critical data
public relations. The entire class will col-
One group suggests that entertainment is
Create graphs and charts
lect the data in the community.
limited in the community. Although there
Use spreadsheet software
are typical theatres, restaurants, and shop-
Apply listening skills
ping areas, they identify a dinner theatre
After the marketing instructor determines
Apply technical writing skills
that the students undertand the parts of a
as an attraction that might be popular. The
marketing research project, the class as a
class collectively agrees that this area would
Employability learning standards would
whole identifies the specific problem to be
be interesting to pursue.
also be sought (ibid.):
addressed (i.e., to determine the level of
The next questions posed to the students
interest in the community for a dinner the-
Use scheduling techniques
atre) and the method of collecting infor-
are, How does that type of business fit into
Use word-processing software
mation. Realizing that any data collection
the overall economic development plan for
Contribute to teamwork
will require financial resources, they con-
the community? What information would
Build interpersonal relationships
be helpful to determine the likelihood for
sider the needed budget along with the pros
Demonstrate technological literacy
and cons of each possible method (e.g.,
success by such a business? Such questions
Apply self-management processes
mail survey, telephone survey, individual
require students to think at a higher level.
interviews, and focus group interviews).
They soon discover that some type of mar-
The academic teachers agree to collabo-
keting research study would help them
They choose to prepare a short survey in-
rate with the marketing teacher to provide
strument that they will distribute at vari-
answer the question.
this engaging, interdisciplinary activity for
ous business locations in the community.
their students.
6
During the project, the students are encouraged to ask high-level
Through this project, the students were learning three subjects at
questions while the teacher also asks such questions as, Why do
the same time in an integrated manner. A team of teachers, along
you want to ask that particular question on the survey instrument?
with a businessperson, contributed to the planning and implemen-
How can you ensure that the question you are asking will provide
tation of the project, bringing expertise from a variety of content
the information you need?
areas to the learning process. Some of the learning occurred out-
side the school. The project became more motivational and real
The students are also required to keep individual journals every
to the students, allowing them to learn subject matter at a higher
level while helping them develop a variety of "process" or "life"
day for a variety of reasons. First, students increase learning through
reflection. Also, teachers can monitor the progress of groups by
skills, including teamwork, communications, problem solving, and
reading such journals. In the journals, the students address such
assuming responsibility for their own learning.
issues as "my contribution to the group today," "what I learned
The National CTL Initiative
today, " and "what I need to do differently tomorrow." Reflecting
upon their own behavior and learning also provides the students
with a means to regulate their own situation.
As is evident from this example, CTL implementation requires
the teacher to play a significant role. Indeed, studies suggest that
During the next 2 weeks, the class works in their small groups.
"what teachers know and can do is the most important influence
They are required to prepare progress reports that are assessed by
on what students learn" (Darling-Hammond 1996, p. 6). Although
both the marketing and English teachers. The group that com-
student characteristics, including socioeconomic status, account
pletes the data tabulation and analysis and that prepares the graphs
for variance in achievement, the teacher's knowledge of the sub-
and charts first presents its work to both the marketing and math-
ject matter and skill in the use of decision making, problem solv-
ematics teachers for their assessment. After the work has been
ing, creative thinking, instructional planning, implementation of
accepted, this group then presents it to the entire class, being care-
plans, and assessment of situations and students make a definite
ful to explain the mathematical procedures used to arrive at their
difference in how much students learn, at what level the students
statistics.
learn, and to what extent they retain that knowledge.
All of the groups collaborate to prepare a final report for the Cham-
In 1997, the Office of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S. De-
ber of Commerce. After several drafts with the help of both the
partment of Education, funded a project at the Ohio State Uni-
marketing and English teachers, the report is presented at a Cham-
versity in partnership with Bowling Green State University to de-
ber meeting. The principal and the English and mathematics teach-
fine contextual teaching and learning, develop a framework for
ers accompany the marketing teacher and her students to the
describing and studying CTL in preservice teacher education, pre-
meeting. After the presentation, the students receive a warm ova-
pare a set of background papers, and identify and study university/
tion. In fact, a few days later, the class receives a letter of apprecia-
college programs that prepare teachers to use various aspects of
tion from Mr. Smith and the Chamber of Commerce. In it, they
contextual teaching and learning (Contextual Teaching and Learn-
explain how the report will be used by the Chamber to encourage
ing 2000).
targeted community members to consider developing a dinner
theatre for the community.
From that work, seven additional projects were funded to create
models for the recruitment and preservice preparation of future
As is evident, the students have been assessed in multiple, au-
teachers and development of inservice teachers. These projects
thentic ways during the course of the project (formative assess-
are described here (source: U.S. Department of Education 2000).
ment) and at its conclusion (summative assessment). The rubrics
Although most of these models are still under development, con-
for these assessments were constructed by the students with the
tact information is included for readers interested in learning more
help of the teacher. The formative assessments included individual
about them or in identifying products and their availability.
daily journals (assessed by the marketing teacher) and process as-
sessment by students and the marketing teacher (three times)
Inservice Professional Development Projects
including such criteria as individual student contributions to the
group, verbal communications, interpersonal skills, etc. The
Bowling Green State University. BGSU has created an interactive, Web-
summative assessment included a final report (assessed by. Mr.
based Model of Excellence for the inservice professional development of
P-12 teachers in the effective use of CTL. This distance-learning model
Smith and the English, mathematics, and marketing teachers) and
allows teachers to learn CTL in a contextual, problem-based, engaging
the presentation (assessed by Mr. Smith, the principal, and the
manner. The ultimate goal is to enhance P-12 student learning, resulting
three teachers).
in better success in postsecondary education and careers. The system has
been piloted in four school districts.
What was once a unit in which one teacher (the marketing teacher)
lectured while the students took notes and later completed a pa-
Contact Information:
per-and-pencil test, the instruction has become an interdiscipli-
Robert G. Berns, Project Director
nary, higher-level, and more real and meaningful experience for
Patricia M. Erickson, Co-principal Investigator
the class. In preparing students to be successful in the marketing
Division of Teaching and Learning
Bowling Green State University
workplace of today and tomorrow, the classroom has now become
Bowling Green, OH 43403
more like that environment.
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.bgsu.edu/ctl
University of Georgia. The overall goal of the UGA project is to de-
Johns Hopkins University. Johns Hopkins University is devc,toping,
velop and implement a preservice teacher education model that is based
demonstrating, and evaluating an inservice professional development
in a theoretical framework of contextual teaching and learning. The model
approach and materials for high schools that will support contextual teach-
will permit preservice teacher education students to move through courses
ing and learning within a Career Academy structure. All of the profes-
that integrate contextual teaching and learning concepts. It also will use
sional development activities and materials will be demonstrated and
a broad range of contexts both to inform teaching and learning and to
evaluated in nonselective urban high schools with Career Academies
provide places for them to occur beyond the classroom. Preservice stu-
that blend academic and vocational content in the core curriculum and
dents will experience CTL in diverse settings and will reflect upon and
electives.
integrate their experiential learning into contextual curriculum and peda-
gogy that can be used in their teaching.
Contact Information:
James McPartland
Contact Information:
Robert Balfanz
Richard Lynch or Michael Padilla
Center for Social Organization of Schools
The University of Georgia
Johns Hopkins University
Athens, GA 30602
3003 N. Chillers St., Suite 200
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
Baltimore, MD 21218
E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.coe.uga.edu/ctl
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
Washington State Contextual Education Consortium. Led by the Uni-
versity of Washington, the Washington State Contextual Education Con-
University of Wisconsin at Madison. This project has designed the
sortium is a partnership of 10 universities and colleges that are collabo-
TeachNET model, which is intended to enhance inservice professional
rating with 18 demographically diverse school districts to enhance atten-
development programs by providing teachers with opportunities to par-
tion to contextual teaching and learning in preservice teacher prepara-
ticipate in workplace/community learning experiences and assisting them
tion programs across the state. The project includes the development of
in applying what they learned to instructional practices. TeachNET has
statewide Contextual Education Academy designed to engage professors
established a network of Regional Cluster Teamseach coordinated by
of education and arts and sciences with K-12 teachers in demonstrating
a local Professional Development Organizationcommitted to enhanc-
innovative contextual teaching and learning classroom strategies that
ing local capacity for providing professional development opportunities
effectively address new state academic standards, providing technical
that connect workplace/community learning and contextual instructional
assistance to the practitioners faculty, replicating local variations of the
practices. TeachNET is particularly relevant for districts, school partner-
academy model in the areas of the state represented by academy mem-
ships, and consortia of educational institutions in urban and rural set-
bers, developing a compendium of effective contextual teaching and learn-
tings interested in maximizing participation in workplace learning.
ing materials, and developing a compendium of effective preservice teacher
preparation models.
Contact Information:
Thomas Sargent, Project Director
Contact Information:
Center on Education and Work
Al Smith
University of Wisconsin
College of Education
964 Educational Sciences Bldg.
University of Washington
1025 West Johnson St.
4725 30th Ave., NE
Madison, WI 53706-1796
Seattle, WA 98105-4021
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]
E-mail: [email protected]
Website: www.cew.wisc.edu/teachnet
Website: www.wacontextual.ewu.edu
Preservice Preparation Projects
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc. The Urban Teacher Academy Project
(UTAP) being conducted by Recruiting New Teachers promotes a highly
The Ohio State University. This project is designed to complete a cross-
qualified and diverse teacher work force for the nation's urban schools by
program analysis of the profiles of five university preservice teacher prepa-
expanding on the successful school-to-career approach of teacher acad-
ration programs that exhibit characteristics of CTL. A comprehensive
emies. These teacher academies encourage high-school students to con-
model program of contextual teaching and learning preservice teacher
sider careers in teaching through a specialized 2- to 4-year curriculum
education is under development with plans for the Urban Network to
related to teaching and learning, practice-teaching opportunities in lo-
Improve Teacher Education (UNITE) to review and refine the model
cal schools under the guidance of mentor teachers, and help in pursuing
program. A program inventory will assess the degree to which selected
postsecondary education. Many teacher academies operate in partner-
UNITE partners are using contextual teaching and learning in their pro-
ship with community college and/or university education programs, thus
grams. Technical assistance will support the implementation of the con-
giving students a supportive corridor into the teaching profession.
textual teaching and learning framework at The Ohio State University,
George Washington University, and Western Oregon University.
Contact Information:
Anne Berrigan or Shirley Schwartz
Contact Information:
Recruiting New Teachers, Inc.
Susan Sears
385 Concord Ave., Suite 103
College of Education
Belmont, MA 02478
The Ohio State University
Tel: [phone] ext.142; Fax: [phone]
Columbus, OH 43210
E-mail: [email protected]
Tel: [phone]; Fax: [phone]
E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.contextual.org
In summary, contextual teaching and
Green, OH: Bowling Green $.tate University,
Moffitt, M. "Problem-based Learning." A Web-
2001.
based System for the Professional Develop-
learning draws upon the latest research on
Bruner, J. S. Toward a Theory of Instruction.
ment of Teachers in Contextual Teaching and
effective teaching and student learning. As
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press,
Learning Project. Bowling Green, OH: Bowl-
a pedagogical aspect of school reform, it
1966.
ing Green State University, 2001.
places responsibility on the student with
Buck Institute for Education. "Project-based
National Commission on Excellence in Educa-
the teacher serving as a significant con-
tion. A Nation at Risk. Washington, DC:
Learning." A Web-based System for the Pro-
NCEE, 1983. (ED 226 006) <http://
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2001.
New York: Harcourt, Brace Jovanovich, 1929.
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Resnick, L. B., and Hall, M. W. "Learning Orga-
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Contextual Teaching and Learning. Columbus:
Salomon, G., ed. Distributed Cognitions: Psycho-
dents as they learn at a higher level. As a
The Ohio State University, 2000. <http://
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bridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
for the new economy. They better retain
Dewey, J. The School and Society. Chicago, IL:
Sapon-Shevin, M. "Teaching for Diversity." A
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University of Chicago Press, 1900.
Web-based System for the Professional De-
Doolittle P E., and Camp, W. G. "Constructiv-
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academic and career-technical achieve-
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nical Education 16, no. 1 (Fall 1999): 23-46.
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Skills. What Work Requires of Schools. A
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SCANS Report for America 2000. Washing-
Frazee, B. "Questioning." A Web-based System
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Robert Berns is Professor, Business and
Technology Center (Pennsylvania); Susan Sears,
The work reported herein was supported under
Marketing Education, and Patricia Erickson is
the National Dissemination Center for Career
Associate Professor, the Ohio State University;
and Technical Education, PR/Award (No.
Assistant Professor, Family and Consumer
and Michael Loyd, Research Specialist, Center
V051A990004) as administered by the Office
Sciences, at Bowling Green State University.
on Education and Training for Employment, the
of Vocational and Adult Education, U.S.
Ohio State University.
Department of Education. However, the
The following people are acknolwedged for their
contents do not necessarily represent the
critical review of the manuscript: Mark
NATIONAL
positions or policies of the Office of Vocational
Balschweid, Assistant Professor, Purdue
DISSEMINATION
and Adult Education or the U. S. Department
University; Cathleen Stasz, Senior Scientist,
of Education, and you should not assume
CENTER
Rand Corporation; Richard Makin, Executive
endorsement by the Federal Government.
anto
CANER 8 TECHNICAL EDUCATION
ME
Director, Clearfield County Career and
1900 KENNY ROAD, COLUMBUS OH 43210-1090
U.S. Department of Education
ERIC
Office of Educational Research and Improvement (OERI)
National Library of Education (NLE)
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