Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
CG 029 013
ED 426 329
Sampson, James P., Jr.
AUTHOR
Using the Internet To Enhance Test Interpretation.
TITLE
1998-01-18
PUB DATE
9p.; Plenary paper presented at the ERIC Clearinghouse on
NOTE
Counseling and Student Services Conference: "Assessment '98:
Assessment for Change-Changes in Assessment" (St.
Petersburg, FL, January 16-18, 1998).
-- Speeches/Meeting Papers (150)
Research (143)
Reports
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Computer Mediated Communication; Counseling; Distance
DESCRIPTORS
Education; *Internet; Lifelong Learning; *Test
Interpretation; Test Use; Testing; Testing Problems
ABSTRACT
The Internet is now adding the potential for remote delivery
of test administration, scoring, profiling, report writing, and multimedia
functions, as well as cost-effective capability in communication and links to
related information. Using the Internet to enhance test interpretation is the
focus of this paper. A review of potential Internet applications in test
interpretations is provided. One important advantage of using the Internet as
a test interpretation resource is the ease with which the interpretive data
can be kept current. Client preparation for test interpretation, generalized
test interpretation, specific test interpretation, and supervision are
covered. All of these applications can be accomplished with technology that
is currently available. Computer-based test interpretation, two-way
videoconferencing, moderated list servers, moderated computer conference, and
follow-up resource links are potentially powerful features of the Internet
available to test users. Issues discussed associated with Internet use in
test interpretation include inappropriate use of counselor-mediated
assessment, relationship issues, ethical issues, credentialing, and counselor
training. Given the general direction of change, it would seem wise to
experiment with appropriate applications of this technology and proactively
deal with potential limitations while there is still time to shape the early
adoption of the Internet in testing.
(EMK)
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Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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The Internet and Test Interpretation
1
Using the Internet to Enhance Test Interpretation
by
James P. Sampson, Jr.
Plenary paper presented at the
Assessment '98 Conference: Assessment for ChangeChanges in Assessment,
St. Petersburg, Florida, January 18, 1998
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
0 This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or organization
originating it.
0 Minor changes have been made to improve
reproduction Quahty.
Points of view or optrons stated in this docu-
ment do not necessarily represent official
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
OERI position or pohcy.
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
James P. Sampson, Jr. is Professor and Co-Director of the Center for the Study of
Technology in Counseling and Career Development at Florida State University. Appreciation is
expressed to Thomas Clawson, Janet Lenz, Robert Reardon, and Sandra Sampson for their
comments on initial drafts of this paper. Correspondence should be addressed to James P.
Sampson, Jr., University Center, Suite A4100, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306-
2490, (850) 644-2490 (voice) 644-3273 (FAX), [email protected],
CD
www.aus.fsu.eduftechcntr/
C\I
0
0
LE
AVAI
BEST COPY
2
The Internet and Test Interpretation
2
considerable knowledge or software
Using The Internet to Enhance Test
Interpretation
enhancements accumulate before releasing a
new version of the interpretive software. With
the Internet, test publishers can update software
Computer applications in assessment
as the information becomes available, notifying
have been in use for over forty years. Main
users of recent changes as they access a
frame computers made it cost-effective to score,
password-protected site, and bill on a per use
profile, and produce narrative interpretive reports
basis or on an annual license basis.
for traditional paper-and-pencil tests. Personal
computers subsequently made it cost-effective to
The Internet can be used in a variety of
add test administration and multimedia elements
ways to potentially enhance test interpretation.
to the above functions. The Internet is now
This section will deal with client preparation for
adding the potential for remote delivery of test
administration, scoring, profiling, report writing,
test interpretation, generalized test interpretation,
specific test interpretation, and supervision. All
and multimedia functions, as well as adding
of the following applications can be
potential cost-effective capability in
accomplished with technology that is currently
communication and links to related information.
available.
Principles of effective and responsible
Client Preparation for Test Interpretation
test use are embodied in testing standards
Effective test interpretation actually
(AERA, APA, NCME, 1985; Joint Committee on
begins before a test is administered. Orientation
Testing Practices, 1988; & AMECD, 1989) and
to testing provides a foundation for delivering a
assessment competency statements (Garfield &
subsequent test interpretation. Problems in test
Prediger, 1994). These standards and
competency statements refer to common interpretation can often be prevented if clients
(and their parents or guardians, if appropriate)
elements of the assessment process that include
test selection, administration, scoring and
are adequately informed of the purpose and
process of testing. For example, the common
interpretation, as well as communicating
client perception that the "scientific" nature of
effectively with test takers and parents or
testing will provide an "answer to his or her
guardians in the case of minors. In practice,
these testing elements can be sequenced as problem can potentially be altered by information
delivered during orientation. Intelligent
follows:
counselors, however, frequently become bored
selection
with repetitive tasks and as a result are attracted
orientation
administration
to more intellectually challenging and interesting
tasks. The problem is that test orientation often
scoring
involves presenting repetitive information. Since
interpretation
The focus of this particular paper will be on using
computers do not become bored with repetitive
the Internet to enhance test interpretation. The
information delivery, they are likely to be a more
paper begins with a review of potential Internet
effective learning resource for general principles
of test orientation. Years of experience in
applications in test interpretation and concludes
with issues associated with Internet use in test
delivering computer-assisted instruction could be
easily applied to the task of test orientation on
interpretation.
the Internet. Using a password to maintain
Internet Applications in Test Interpretation
security, clients could access the orientation at
their convenience at home or at public locations,
One important potential advantage of
such as a public library. The counselor would
using the Internet as a test interpretation
add any necessary client-specific orientation that
resource is the ease with which the interpretive
is not covered by computer-assisted instruction.
data can be kept current The costs associated
with disk manufacture, shipping, and billing,
Generalized Test Interpretation
makes it expensive for publishers to update
Similar to test orientation, test
interpretive software as each new enhancement
interpretation can also often be repetitive and
is available from on-going practice and research.
time consuming for the counselor. As a result,
As a result, test publishers tend to wait until
counselor performance can be compromised.
3
The Internet and Test Interpretation
3
Two negative outcomes may result for the client
interpretations to clients. This section will deal
First, the client may not receive information they
with computer-based test interpretation, two-way
need regarding basic terminology used in a
videoconferencing, moderated list servers,
particular test and what is being measured by
computer moderated conferences for group
scale and total scores. This lack of basic
interpretation, and follow-up resource links.
knowledge may make it more difficult for the
client to understand and apply the more specific Computer-based test interpretation.
interpretive information provided by the
Computer-Based Test Interpretation (CBTI) can
counselor. Second, if the counselor appears
enhance the validity and reliability of testing by
bored while delivering basic information, the
providing counselors with an expanded and
client may misperceive that the counselor is
consistent knowledge base for test
bored with him or her and the counseling
interpretation. Accumulated research data and
relationship may be harmed as a result. Even if
practitioner experience expands the knowledge
the counselor does a good job of communicating
base for interpretation, while the standardized
basic concepts, less time is available to help a
nature of computing contributes to the
client gain insights about factors that influence
consistency of interpretation. In comparison with
his or her behavior and to help integrate insights
practitioner-developed reports, CBTI reports
gained in assessment into a realistic plan for
tend to be more comprehensive and objective
behavior change. Using a computer to provide a
and less subject to interpreter bias (Sampson, in
generalized test interpretation of test results can
press-a). Varying types of CBTI exist according
help a client to be better prepared for a specific
to the type of knowledge base that is used for
test interpretation by "being aware of basic
the software. CBTI can be categorized as
terminology, concepts, and the general nature of
descriptive, clinician-modeled (renowned
their scores" (Sampson, 1983, p. 294). By
clinician type), clinician-modeled (statistical
allocating the repetitive computational and
model type), and clinical actuarial (Roid &
instructional tasks to the computer, the
Gorsuch, 1984). CBTI has also been
counselor can focus on interpersonal functions
categorized into three levels: (a) the statement
associated with helping clients understand and
level contains data-based descriptions; (b) the
apply test results to their individual
narrative level adds the judgment of experts in
circumstances (Sampson, in press-a).
sequencing interpretive statements; and (c) the
decision level adds prediction of client behavior
Specific Test Interpretation
(Lanyon, 1987).
Building on the foundation of the
generalized test interpretation, specific test
Computer-based test interpretation via
interpretation adds interpretation of individual
the Internet can be used in three different
scales and aggregate score profiles as well as
modes. When using self-assessment
recommendations for action based on test
instruments, clients can independently access
results. In the case of self-assessment
CBTI from password-protected Internet sites
instruments, such as the Self-Directed Search
immediately after test administration is complete.
(SDS, Holland, 1994), the measures are
Given that the Self-Directed Search (SDS,
designed to be administered and interpreted
Holland, 1994) was designed to be used with
without input from a counselor. As a result, self-
little or no counselor intervention (Reardon &
assessment instruments may be delivered on
Lenz, in press), the SDS could be administered
the Internet by using or adapting existing
and interpreted over the Internet In this case
personal computer-based interpretations, such
generalized and specific test interpretation are
as the interpretation for the Self-Directed Search
combined for the user. When using counselor-
(Reardon & PAR Staff, 1996). Although self-
mediated assessment, the client first reviews a
assessment instruments can be used without
generalized test interpretation, then discusses
counselor input, Reardon and Lenz (in press)
his or her results with a counselor (face-to-face
noted that experience with the SDS has shown
or using a videoconference over the Internet),
that counselor input enhances the effectiveness
and then reviews a specific test interpretation
of interpretations. In the case of counselor-
delivered from a password-protected Internet
mediated (traditional) assessment, the measures
site as a homework assignment Some
require that trained practitioners deliver test
counselors might prefer for clients to review both
4
The Internet and Test Interpretation 4
way videoconferencing over the Internet This
the generalized and the specific interpretation as
preparation for counseling. In one case, the
use of technology may be especially appropriate
for clients in geographically remote locations and
specific interpretation on the Internet reinforces
clients with physical disabilities who could
learning that occurs in counseling, while in the
choose to receive services at their residence. E-
second case, specific interpretation serves as an
mail could be used to schedule test interpretation
advance organizer for subsequent learning
sessions. Documentation of the completion of a
occurring in counseling. The current narrative
test interpretation, including all test reports and
interpretive report for the Strong Interest
intervention (treatment) plans, could be
Inventory (SII, Hansen, Harmon, Borgen, &
automatically added to the client's case notes.
Hammer, 1994) could be delivered over the
Subsequent client questions or concerns could
Internet in this manner. The third mode for
be E-mailed to the counselor for immediate
delivering CBTI occurs when the principal
response or discussion at the next scheduled
consumer of test data and reports is the
counseling session (Sampson, Kolodinsky, &
counselor, rather than the client In this case, no
Greeno, 1997).
generalized interpretation is provided to the
client, and the counselor accesses a specific
Delivering CBTI via two-way
interpretation from a password-protected Internet
site. For, example, the current narrative
videoconferencing could be an option that
individuals might select who have completed
interpretive report for the MMPI-2 (Butcher,
Dahlstrom, Graham, Tellegen, Hathaway, &
self-assessment measures. CBTI for self-
assessment could indicate the availability and
McKinley, 1989) could be delivered over the
potential benefits of two-way videoconferencing
Internet in this manner.
with a counselor trained in interpreting this
By integrating CBTI, multimedia, and the specific test Individuals selecting this option
Internet, it will be possible to better attend to
could either pay for the time used (as is the case
multicultural issues in test interpretation. The
for many current telephone help lines for
gender, age, race, and ethnicity of the individual
computer software) or the service could be paid
visually presenting information on test
for by an organization with a mission to serve
interpretation can be made to match the group
specific populations (such as employment
membership of the test taker. Keeping group
service staff helping individuals make the
membership constant should make it easier for
transition from welfare to work). Self-
the client to relate to and understand the
assessment measures are increasingly being
individual presenting the interpretation
incorporated into comprehensive counseling
(Sampson, 1990). Additional multicultural
resources, such as computer-assisted career
research on test content and test interpretation
guidance systems. Two-way videoconferencing
can be added to CBTI as the research becomes
makes it possible for the counselor to intervene
"in the moment," providing access to client
available.
perceptions and behavior as they occur, instead
Much of the current Internet is text
of subsequently discussing a client's
intensive, data intensive, and structured. These
reconstruction of a learning event that has
characteristics make it more difficult for the many
occurred in the past (Sampson et al., 1997).
individuals with limited literacy skills to access
and successfully use the Internet. Integrating
Moderated list servers. Moderated
CBTI and multimedia can make it easier for
mailing lists assist individuals with common
individuals with limited literacy skills to use the
interests to communicate with each other (Offer
Internet. Providing versions of test
& Watts, 1997). A list server allows sequential
interpretations with more video content and less
public exchange of text-based information on a
text has the potential to help both individuals with
predetermined topic among a predetermined
limited literacy and individuals with a more visual
group of individuals (Sampson et al., 1997).
learning style.
Messages are distributed to all individuals who
have registered to participate on the list server.
Two-way videoconferencinq.
The lack of interaction in "real time" is offset by
Presentation and discussion of test
the convenience of being able to view messages
interpretations could be accomplished via two-
at any time. The participant can choose to post
5
The Internet and Test Interpretation
5
messages or to simply read the available
study skill behaviors could reveal links to web
messages and maintain a degree of anonymity.
sites delivering specific study skills instruction.
The moderator is responsible for keeping the
Supervision of Test Interpretation
interaction focused, halting inappropriate
The Internet has expanded opportunities
information exchanges, and proactively dealing
with potential ethical problems. This resource
for delivering supervision, potentially enhancing
would allow a counselor to respond to general both the quantity and quality of interaction
(Casey, Bloom, & Moan, 1994). The Internet
questions about test interpretation or specific
can be used to facilitate supervision in several
questions about individual test results (assuming
that informed consent has been given when
ways. A moderated list server could be used as
joining the list server). Participants can
a form of group supervision, with counselors
potentially learn from the interpretive insights
requesting assistance for difficult interpretive
revealed by the counselor and other members of
issues. The moderator could be selected on the
the list server. The list server can also provide
basis of specific interpretive expertise as well as
some social support for confronting issues
his or her group facilitative skills. In this case,
revealed in test results and in taking action for
the role of the moderator would be expanded to
positive behavior change.
include sharing his or her interpretive expertise
and ensuring that the contributions of the other
Moderated computer conferences. A
participants are appropriate for a specific test.
moderated computer conference allows
Two-way videoconferencing could also be used
simultaneous public interaction among a
for individual supervision. The client's case
predetermined group of individuals (Sampson et
notes (Casey et al., 1994), test results, and CBTI
al., 1997). The requirement of adhering to a
report could be attached to an e-mail file and
scheduled time for interaction is offset by the
sent to the supervisor to help with preparation for
higher level of interpersonal interaction that is
supervision. The supervisor and supervisee
possible in "real time." While not identical, the
could then discuss a specific test interpretation
group dynamics associated with group
in depth from remote locations in "real time." A
counseling are also operative in computer
variation might include adding a consultant from
conferences. As a result, the availability of a
a remote location to an ongoing supervisory
moderator can help keep the interaction among
relationship when an unusual interpretive
participants focused, ensure that all participants
question requires highly specialized expertise.
have the opportunity to contribute, halt
inappropriate information exchanges, and
Issues Associated with Internet Use in Test
Interpretation
proactively deal with potential ethical problems.
A moderated computer conference can serve the
same functions as the moderated list server
While the Internet applications described
described above with the exception that the "real
above offer the potential to enhance the access
time" interaction available has the potential to
to and the quality of testing, issues also exist
provide the opportunity to more quickly explore
that have the potential to nullify the potential
issues in greater depth and to provide a higher
benefits of using this technology. This section
level of social support.
deals with inappropriate use of counselor-
mediated assessment, relationship issues,
Follow-up resource links. A potentially
ethics, credentialing, and counselor training.
powerful feature of the Internet is the ability to
use links embedded in one Internet web site to
Inappropriate use of Counselor-Mediated
access related information and services
Assessment
available at other Internet web sites. Links can
As stated previously, counselor-
be used to promote additional learning related to
mediated (traditional) assessment is designed to
test interpretation. For example, an interest
include trained practitioners in delivering test
inventory interpretation could reveal links to
interpretations to clients, while self-assessment
occupational information web sites for a client's
measures are designed to be self-interpreting.
high scoring occupations as a stimulus for career
The problem occurs when counselor-mediated
exploration. The interpretation of a measure of
measures are delivered on the Internet without
practitioner intervention. The first problem is the
6
The Internet and Test Interpretation 6
assumption that the results of the Internet-
clients who need a more personalized level of
delivered version are equivalent in validity to the
assistance. Inadequately trained or overworked
results of the traditional measure. The second
counselors may misuse or become dependent
on software, such as CBTI. A lack of counselor
problem is the assumption that the written
interpretation offered on the Internet is
awareness of important location-specific
equivalent in validity to the interpretation offered
circumstances may cause a counselor in a
by a practitioner. Moving the interpretation of a
remote location to misinterpret client data or fail
to recognize relevant issues. Clients with limited
self-assessment measure to the Internet is
appropriate if the measure was originally
financial resources may have difficulty gaining
validated to be self-interpreting. Unless
access to the Internet Finally, accessing the
validation data are available, the interpretation of
Internet from a residence shared with other
counselor-mediated measures on the Internet individuals may not provide the auditory and
without practitioner intervention is inappropriate
visual privacy necessary for the client to
(NCDA, 1997).
establish and maintain a counseling relationship.
Relationship Issues
Initial issues associated with computer
Videoconferencing and face-to-face
networking were addressed in ethical standards
interaction have been shown to be similar, but
and practice guidelines adopted in the American
not identical forms of communication.
Association for Counseling and Development
Videoconferencing resulted in a more intense
(1988), the National Board for Certified
task focus and greater participant awareness of
Counselors (1989), the National Career
their physical appearance in the visual recording
Development Association (1991), and the
process, in comparison with face-to-face
American Psychological Association (1986).
interactions (Oravec, 1996). The question, "Is
These initial standards on computer networking
remote videoconference interaction between a
have recently been revised and expanded to
counselor and a client in a helping relationship
deal specifically with the provision of information
equivalent to face-to-face interaction'?" is an
and counseling services over the Internet
interesting, but not crucial question. Given our
current knowledge, the ultimate answer will likely
The NBCC/CCE (1997) webcounseling
be novideoconferencing and face-to-face
standards address links to existing standards,
interaction are different forms of communication.
confidentiality, supervision, relationship issues,
The more important question is, "Does remote
release of information, record keeping, self-
videoconference interaction between a
disclosure, certification and licensure, research,
counselor and a client in a helping relationship
informed consent, impostor clients and
assist clients in understanding and applying test
counselors, security, local counseling support,
results to solving problems and changing
liability, counselor access off-line, inappropriate
behavior'?" Development of initial Internet
presenting concerns, assessment and intake,
applications and subsequent research on
communication problems, and relationship
effectiveness is necessary to maximize the
issues. The NCDA (1997) Internet standards
benefits and minimize the limitations associated
specifically deal with the qualifications of the
with using this technology in counseling
developer or provider, access to Internet sites,
(Sampson, in press-b).
counselor understanding of local environment,
content of career counseling and planning
Ethical Issues
services, appropriateness of the client for receipt
Numerous ethical issues have been
of services, appropriate local support for the
.
raised related to delivering assessment,
client, clarity of the contract with the client,
information and counseling over the Internet
inclusion of linkages to other web sites, use of
(Bartram, 1997; Sampson, in press-b; Sampson
assessment, job posting and searching, and
et al., 1997). The confidentiality of client data
unacceptable counselor behaviors.
transmission and storage of assessment data
can be compromised. It is possible to deliver
Credentialinq
interpretive information on the Internet that is
The Internet poses some important
attractively presented but inherently invalid.
challenges regarding credentialing. At present, it
There may be a lack of counselor intervention for
is uncertain how state counselor licensure laws
The Internet and Test Interpretation
7
will apply to a counselor delivering information
choices will increasingly be made on the basis of
distance guidance, and testing will likely continue
and services out-of-state (Sampson et al., 1997).
to play an important role in the guidance
The same issue applies to delivering interpretive
function. The speed at which these changes will
information and services across national
occur can be debated, but the general direction
boundaries (Bartram, 1997). Also, counselors
of the change seems clear.
delivering interpretive information and services
It would seem wise
to carefully experiment with appropriate
over the Internet need to clearly indicate their
applications of this technology and to proactively
credentials, including the complete name of the
credential, as well as the name and address of
deal with potential limitations while there is still
the credentialing organization. Existing Internet
time to shape the early adoption of the Internet in
web sites often fail to indicate the credentials of
testing.
the service provider (Sampson et al., 1997). The
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for Careers Education and Counselling,
potential problems. Journal of Counseling and
Sheraton House, Castle Park, Cambridge CB3
Development, 75. 203-212.
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