ERIC ED426146: Welfare Reform and Children: Potential Implications. New Federalism: Issues and Options for States. Series A, No. A-23.

9 Pages·1998·0.21 MB·English

by  ERIC

DOCUMENT RESUME
UD 032 701
ED 426 146
Zaslow, Martha; Tout, Kathryn; Botsko, Christopher; Moore,
AUTHOR
Kristin
Welfare Reform and Children: Potential Implications. New
TITLE
Federalism: Issues and Options for States. Series A, No.
A-23.
Urban Inst., Washington, DC.
INSTITUTION
1998-00-00
PUB DATE
8p.; Part of the Urban Institute's "Assessing the New
NOTE
Federalism" project, a multiyear effort to monitor and
assess the devolution of social programs.
The Urban Institute, 2100 M Street, N.W., Washington, DC
AVAILABLE FROM
20037; Tel: [phone]; Web site: http://www.urban.org
Evaluative (142)
Reports
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
*Child Welfare; Children; *Disadvantaged Youth; Family
DESCRIPTORS
Characteristics; Federal Legislation; Job Training; *Low
Income Groups; Poverty; Program Evaluation; *Social Change;
*Welfare Recipients
*Personal Responsibility and Work Opp Recon Act; Welfare
IDENTIFIERS
Reform
ABSTRACT
Findings from recent evaluations of welfare-to-work programs
and child development research suggest that welfare reform can affect
children in multiple ways. These studies focused on three welfare-to-work
programs that differ from those that will be implemented under the Personal
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Reconciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA). The
earlier programs have emphasized providing recipients with education and job
skills to enhance employability, while the new programs will require
recipients to make the transition to employment. For this reason, interest in
the evaluations centers on broad implications that are applicable in the new
policy context. The report concludes that welfare-to-work programs can change
multiple aspects of life that are important to children, and that these
program impacts can have positive and negative effects. Findings further
indicate that program impacts on children vary by family characteristics. It
is also important to note that the findings of relevance to children from
evaluations of current programs differ across the set of available
evaluations. The evidence suggests that children in families whose mothers
are less likely to find stable employment, more likely to be sanctioned or
encounter time limits for this failure, or who will be ineligible to receive
benefits under the new legislation, could face negative outcomes due to
decreased economic resources and higher maternal stress. (Contains 26 notes.)
(SLD)
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Welfare Reform and Children: Potential Implications
New Federalism.
Issues and Options for States
Urban Institute
June 1998
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
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Points of view or opinions stated in this
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INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)
official OERI position or policy.
1
2
THE URBAN
INSTITUTE
Welfare Reform
II
and Children: Potential
Implications
Martha Zaslow, Kathryn Tout,
Christopher Botsko, and Kristin Moore
Child Trends, Inc.
A
chdults are typically the focus of welfare
tive development, school progress, health, and
policies and programs, even though
social adjustment. They also ask whether
ildren comprise a majority of public
impacts on children can be explained by pro-
assistance recipients. In 1995, about two-
gram effects on family economic status,
thirds of those receiving Aid to Families with
maternal educational attainment, maternal
Dependent Children each month were chil-
psychological well-being, parent-child rela-
dren.1 Moreover, key provisions in the most
tions, or child care participation.
recent
welfare
legislation,
Personal
the
The three welfare-to-work programs con-
sidered in these studiesJOBS, the New
Responsibility and Work Opportunity Recon-
ciliation Act of 1996 (PRWORA), have
Chance Demonstration, and the Teenage
implications for children.
Parent Demonstration (see note 2)
Based on research fmdings
differ from those that will be
from welfare-to-work
pro-
\ implemented under 1996 wel-
Findings from
gram evaluations and from
fare reform. The earlier gen-
recent welfare-to-work
basic research on child
eration of programs empha-
evaluations point to evidence
development, we conclude
sized providing recipients
that welfare reform can
with education and job
of program impacts on mater-
affect children in diverse
skills to enhance employa-
.
nal psychological well-being ana
ways. These effects will
bility, while the new policy
interaction
vary depending on state
on parent-child
requires recipients to make
and local policies, family
the transition to employ-
and the children's home
characteristics and risk sta-
ment. Therefore, our concern
environments.
tus, patterns of maternal em-
less with specific fmdings
is
ployment, and children's experi-
from the evaluations than with
ences in the home and in nonmaternal
broad conclusions that are applicable
care settings.
in the new policy context.
The findings to date indicate, first, that
welfare-to-work programs can bring about
Recent Findings
changes in multiple aspects of family life that
A product of
Findings from recent welfare-to-work
are important to children. These changes
"Assessinu the
evaluations provide an important resource for
include but go beyond changes in maternal
ew Federalism,"
generating hypotheses about how PRWORA
educational attainment and family economic
in Urban Institute
will affect children.2 These studies not only
For example, findings point to evi-
status.3
examine program impacts on children's cogni-
dence of program impacts on maternal psy-
Program to Assess
!Changing Social
Policies
Series A, No. A-23, June 1998
3
Welfare Provisions
levels in specific program compo-
chological well-being and on parent-
it is
nents and populations served,
child interaction and the children's
Important to Children
important to note that findings of rel-
home environments.4 Evidence also
evance to children differ across the
Keeping in mind the broad conclu-
exists for program impacts on young
sions above about how welfare pro-
set of available evaluations. Program
participation
non-
children's
in
grams may affect children, we turn to
impacts on parenting behavior illus-
maternal child care settings.5 Previ-
this point. Within the New
what the research on families and chil-
ous research documents linkages
trate
dren might tell us about the potential
Chance evaluation, findings point to
between each of these factors and
significant (though modest) positive
implications of specific PRWORA pro-
children's development.6
visions for children.
program impacts on the quality of cog-
Second, the findings include both
nitive stimulation provided to the child
positive and negative program impacts
Employment Requirements
and on the emotional quality of mother-
on the set of family variables of impor-
Welfare legislation enacted in
child interaction.10 In contrast, evalua-
tance to children. For example, partic-
1996 requires participation in work-
tors documented no program impacts
ipation in some welfare-to-work pro-
related activities, as defined by each
grams results in modest increases in
on parenting within the Teenage Parent
state, within 24 months of receiving
Demonstration," while researchers
earnings and income and in increases
assistance. The focus on work departs
found significant though small negative
in maternal educational attainment.7
legislation, which
from previous
program impacts on these dimensions
At the same time, some results point to
allowed welfare recipients to partici-
of parenting during the first months of
negative program impacts, for exam-
pate in human capital development
assignment to the JOBS program.I2
ple, on maternal depression and moth-
These contrasting findings do not
activities such as basic education or
ers' subjective sense of stress (within
job training.
reflect program variations alone, but a
the New Chance evaluation).8
Findings from the small set of
combination of program features and
Third, findings to date indicate
studies examining maternal employ-
populations served.
that program impacts on children vary
ment in low-income families indicate
by family characteristics. Considerable
that children fare slightly better or
heterogeneity exists among families
about the same on measures of devel-
receiving welfare in terms of maternal
What the Findings
opment when their mothers are
educational attainment, duration of
Suggest for Welfare
employed than when they are not.13
welfare receipt, and degree of social
Reform Impacts
In one study, for example, children
support. Families differ in number of
were found to show higher scores on
risk factors (such as low educational
measures of reading and math in the
attainment, low reading and math
The findings from evaluations of
early years of elementary school
welfare-to-work programs that are
skills, and moderate to high levels of
when their mothers had been em-
relevant to children within the new
depressive symptoms), as well as in
ployed than when they had not
PRWORA environment imply that:
number of protective factors (such as
been.14 One researcher hypothesizes
presence of a support network and
that some of the favorable outcomes
O There are multiple pathways,
warmth in family relationships). Apart
for children are rooted in the better
noneconomic as well as eco-
from maternal participation in welfare-
mental health for employed than for
nomic, by which welfare-to-
to-work programs, measures of cogni-
nonemployed mothers, a pattern that
work programs can affect child
development and
behavioral
tive
has been noted consistently and that
development.
adjustment for children from welfare
may be stronger among low-income
families can be predicted by the accu-
than middle-class families.15 Other
Program impacts on children
mulation of risk and protective factors
researchers hypothesize that the neu-
will reflect the net effect of mul-
present in their families.9 Evaluations
to favorable implications of
tral
tiple changes within families,
of welfare-to-work programs show
employment for children from low-
some of which may be positive
that program impacts on children vary
income families reflect the infusion of
and some negative.
in light of the presence of specific risk
needed economic resources.16
factors and the total number of risk
O Impacts of welfare reform on
Two caveats to this general con-
factors. For instance, the New Chance
children are likely to differ for
evaluation found that unfavorable
clusion are relevant to PRWORA poli-
families with differing initial
cy. First, some studies point to negative
program impacts on children's social
outcomes for children in low-income
characteristics, and the overall
development occurred specifically for
number of risk factors will be
families when employment is initiated
children from families with a high
during the first year of a child's life.17
number of risk factors and for chil-
important.
Given that, under PRWORA, some
dren whose mothers had more symp-
states are requiring employment for
CI In the new policy context, we
toms of depression at the start of the
can anticipate that impacts on
mothers whose infants are as young as
study.
zero to three months, researchers need
children will vary in light of the
Finally, in the present policy con-
specific features of state and
to clarify the implications of maternal
text, in which we can expect substan-
employment for infants in low-income
tial variation at the state and local
local programs.
4
2
families. Second, studies looking at
as well as paternal involvement in
these children will be subject to work
families with employed mothers note
children's lives.
requirements. Likewise, children of
that child outcomes in low-income
Based on the existing research,
legal immigrants who are no longer eli-
families vary according to maternal
however, only cautious predictions
gible for food stamps under PRWORA
can be made in the present policy
wage leve1,18 and that the quality of
may experience diminished family
the home environment provided to
context about the effects of paternal
resources. Some states will provide
young children can decline when
involvement. It is reasonable to pre-
supplemental funds or emergency ben-
mothers begin jobs that are low-wage
dict that if fathers play more active,
efits for families who are no longer eli-
and involve repetitive, unstimulating
positive roles in children's lives as a
gible for certain programs. But, as a
result of PRWORA, children will
tasks.19
result of welfare reform, some families
benefit. Indeed, various forms of
already at risk for difficulties will
Time Limits
paternal involvement and the provi-
simultaneously experience significant
Under previous welfare law, pub-
sion of child support have been linked
decreases in benefits and in time avail-
lic assistance was an entitlement for
to positive developmental outcomes
able for adult supervision of children.
all families that met certain income
for children.21 However, it is not yet
Further, PRWORA eliminated
eligibility guidelines. The new law
known whether or how child support
the federal entitlement to public assis-
places a 60-month lifetime
tance for those who met certain eli-
Children in families
limit on welfare receipt. States
gibility requirements. States are
have latitude to create even
whose mothers are less likely to find
required to maintain 80 percent of
stricter time limits or to exempt
their FY 1994 Aid to Families with
stable employment, more likely to be
some families from the 60-
Dependent Children and Emer-
sanctioned or hit time limits, or who
month limit.
gency Assistance spending (for new
will be ineligible to receive benefits
While it is possible that the
Temporary Assistance for Needy
new incentive structure will
under the new legislation, could face
Families programs), but are not
change the behavior of long-
required to provide cash assistance
negative outcomes due to decreased
term welfare recipients so that
and can deny benefits to certain
economic resources and higher
they don't reach the 60-month
groups. The children of families that
maternal stress.
time limit, there is reason to be
experience significant decreases in
concerned about the children of
economic resources due to state eli-
in a mandatory context influences
long-term welfare recipients who do
gibility decisions may be at greater risk
father-child contact or children's
ultimately lose their benefits. An evalu-
for negative developmental outcomes.
ation of the JOBS program found that
developmental outcomes. Moreover,
Child Care
long-term welfare recipients (and their
benefits to children may not occur if
children) differ from short-term recipi-
increased paternal involvement leads
Under the new welfare law, states
ents in important ways. Long-term
to inter-parental conflict or increased
have flexibility regarding child care
recipients displayed more depressive
maternal stress.22 Contentious pater-
funding and child care assistance eli-
symptoms, had less of a sense of per-
nal involvement and negative father-
gibility guidelines. PRWORA com-
sonal control over their lives, and had
child relations may place children at
bined child care monies into the Child
fewer social supports than short-term
greater risk for poor developmental
Care and Development Fund, which
outcomes. It will be important to
recipients. Long-term recipients also
is a capped grant based on prior state
provided their children with less cogni-
examine the degree to which the new
child care expenditures. States will
tive stimulation and emotional support
child support provisions influence the
vary in the degree to which they use
this money to provide subsidies,
quality of nonresident fathers' rela-
than did short-term recipients, and the
tionships with both children and
children themselves scored lower on
increase the supply of child care,
measures of receptive vocabulary and
mothers.
assist parents in finding child care,
social maturity.20 Children from fami-
and strengthen regulation and moni-
Eligibility and Entitlement Changes
lies who are more likely to reach the
toring of licensed child care.
time limits thus appear to be at higher
Children with disabilities who
Important to
children's well-
are already at risk for negative out-
risk already.
being is whether states, when provid-
comes may potentially experience
ing a child care subsidy to families,
Paternity and Child Support
both decreases in specific benefits
require them to use a licensed care-
Welfare
reform
strengthened
and decreases in parental availability
giver and encourage them to use dif-
child support and paternity establish-
and supervision. Under PRWORA, an
ferent types of care such as center or
estimated 135,000 to 315,000 chil-
ment provisions. States are now man-
family daycare. Indications are that a
dated to have a process in place for
dren with behavioral disorders and
substantial proportion of families will
voluntary paternity acknowledgment
learning disabilities who received
turn to unlicensed, informal forms of
and to establish paternity for 90 per-
Supplemental Security Income (SSI)
child care when seeking to fulfill the
cent of all births to unmarried women.
will no longer be eligible for bene-
new work requirements. This type of
These policies have the potential to
In addition, adult welfare
care often offers more flexible hours
fits.23
increase families' economic resources
of operation and is
recipients in the families of many of
less expensive
5
than center-based care. But research
developmental outcomes at even
and Evaluation, 1995); 2) the evalua-
shows that unlicensed, informal child
greater risk. Children in families
tion of the New Chance Demonstra-
care is often of lower quality than reg-
tion, a voluntary comprehensive pro-
whose mothers are less likely to find
ulated settings.24
gram for adolescent mothers receiving
stable employment, more likely to be
welfare who had dropped out of school,
sanctioned or hit time limits, or who
Nonmarital and Teenage Child-
with program components for children
will be ineligible to receive benefits
bearing
as well as mothers (Quint, J., H. Bos,
under the new legislation, could face
and D. Polit, New Chance: Final
Given the large body of research
negative outcomes due to decreased
Report on a Comprehensive Program
documenting negative developmental
economic resources and higher mater-
for Young Mothers in Poverty and
outcomes for children born to teenage
nal stress. Children enrolled in poor
Their Children, New York: Manpower
mothers, single-parent families, or
quality child care while their mothers
Demonstration Research Corporation,
large families with closely spaced or
work may also be at increased risk for
1997); and 3) an evaluation of the
unwanted births,25 the degree to
poor outcomes.
Teenage Parent Demonstration,
a
which PRWORA reduces childbear-
Finally, the offsetting influences
mandatory program for adolescent
ing among nonmarried women and
of various welfare policies may result
mothers entering the welfare system
teenagers and promotes marriage will
in PRWORA having neither negative
(Kisker, E.E., A. Rangarajan, and K.
be important to child well-being.
nor positive effects on some children.
Boller, Moving into Adulthood: Were
Toward these ends, the welfare law
the Impacts of Mandatory Programs for
But many of these children will likely
requires teenage welfare recipients to
Welfare-Dependent Teenage Parents
remain at risk for the negative out-
Sustained After the Programs Ended?
attend school and live with their par-
comes associated with long-term
Washington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
other responsible
ents
or
adults.
poverty.
Health and Human Services, Office of
PRWORA also allows states to insti-
the Assistant Secretary for Planning and
tute a "family cap" that denies addi-
Evaluation, 1998).
tional benefits to families in which
more children were born while the
3. Quint, J., D. Polit, H. Bos, and
Notes
families were receiving assistance.
G. Cave, New Chance: Interim Find-
States that succeed in reducing non-
ings on a Comprehensive Program
marital births will receive monetary
for Disadvantaged Mothers and Their
1. U.S. House of Representatives,
Children, New York: Manpower
bonuses.
Committee on Ways and Means, 1996
Demonstration Research Corporation,
If family cap policies do not suc-
Green Book, Washington, D.C.: U.S.
1994; Quint, Bos, and Polit 1997;
cessfully discourage childbearing, how-
Government Printing Office, 1996.
Hamilton et al. 1997.
families would experience a
ever,
2. The three evaluations whose
decline in economic resources, because
4. Quint, Bos, and Polit 1997.
findings are examined here all have
they would need to share the same
Also see De Temple, J., and C. Snow,
components focusing explicitly on
resources among more family mem-
"Mother-Child Interactions Related to
child outcomes. The evaluations are: 1)
bers. Indeed, some recent fmdings sug-
the Emergence of Literacy," Morri-
the National Evaluation of Welfare-to-
son, D.R., M.J. Zaslow, and M.R.
gest that family cap policies may not be
Work Strategies, which focuses on the
Dion, "Completing the Portrayal of
effective. An evaluation of Delaware's
Job Opportunities and Basic Skills
Parenting Behavior with Interview-
A Better Chance Program (ABC),
Training Program (JOBS)the pro-
Based Measures of Parenting," and
which
gram that was implemented nationally
instituted family cap policies,
Weinfield, N.S., B. Egeland, and J.R.
in response to the Family Support Act
time-limited welfare receipt, and sanc-
Ogawa, "Affective Quality of Moth-
of 1988 (Hamilton, G., T. Brock, M.
tions (among other reforms), found that
er-Child Interactions"all three in
Farrell, D. Friedlander, and K. Harknett,
the policies had no impact on reducing
Zaslow, M.J., and C.A. Eldred, eds.,
Evaluating Two Welfare-to-Work Pro-
births or pregnancies. 26
Parenting Behavior in a Sample of
gram Approaches: Two-Year Find-
Young Mothers in Poverty: Results of
***
ings on the Labor Force Attachment
the New Chance Observational Study,
and Human Capital Development
Children in certain subgroups will
New York: Manpower Demonstration
Programs in Three Sites, Washington,
benefit from welfare reform to the
Research Corporation, 1998. Also see
D.C.: U.S. Department of Health and
extent that new policies succeed in
Zaslow, M.J., M.R. Dion, and D.R.
Human Services, Administration for
moving parents into jobs and increas-
Morrison, "Effects of the JOBS Pro-
Children and Families and Office of
ing economic resources for families;
gram on Mother-Child Relations Dur-
the Assistant Secretary for Planning
ing the Early Months of Program Par-
bringing about greater and more posi-
and Evaluation, 1997; Moore, K.A.,
ticipation," presented at the biennial
tive father involvement (both econom-
M.J. Zaslow, M.J. Coiro, S.M. Miller,
meeting of the Society for Research
ic and social) in children's lives; plac-
and E.B. Magenheim, "How Well Are
in Child Development, Washington,
They Faring? AFDC Families with
ing children in care settings that are
D.C., April 1997.
Preschool-Aged Children at the Out-
safe, stimulating, and supportive; and
set of the JOBS Evaluation," Wash-
reducing family size.
5. Kisker, E.E., and M. Silverberg,
ington, D.C.: U.S. Department of
Certain PRWORA provisions,
"Child Care Utilization by Disadvan-
Health and Human Services, Office of
however, will place children who are
taged Teenage Mothers," Journal of
the Assistant Secretary for Planning
already at elevated risk for poor Social Issues, vol. 4 (1991), pp.
6
4
t
tarily choose to be employed, rather
159-177; Moore et al. 1995; Quint et
20. Moore et al. 1995.
than when their mothers are required
al. 1994; Quint, Bos, and Po lit 1997.
21. Federal Interagency Forum
to participate in employment activi-
6. Evidence is summarized in
on Child and Family Statistics, "Nur-
ties in the context of welfare-to-work
turing Fatherhood: Improving Data
Zaslow, M.J., K.A. Moore, D.R. Mor-
programs. We can use existing re-
rison, and M.J. Coiro, "The Family
and Research on Male Fertility, Fam-
search as a resource for predicting the
and Fatherhood,"
Support Act and Children: Potential
Formation
ily
implications of PRWORA for chil-
Washington, D.C.: Forum on Child
Pathways of Influence," Children and
dren, but note two caveats. First, re-
Services Review,
vol.
and Family Statistics, 1998.
Youth
17
searchers are still seeking to account
(1995), pp. 231-249.
adequately for the role played by self-
22. Garfinkel, I., and S. McLana-
selection in explaining child out-
han, "The Effects of Child Support
7. Friedlander, D., and G. Burt-
comes when mothers themselves
Reform on Child Well-Being," in P.L.
less, Five Years After: The Long-Term
choose employment. Second, find-
Chase-Lansdale and J. Brooks-Gunn,
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ings on employment in the context of
eds., Escape from Poverty: What Makes
New York: Sage, 1995; Friedlander,
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U.K.: Cambridge University Press,
Two-Year Impacts in Six Counties,
1997.
New York: Manpower Demonstration
14. Vandell, D.L., and J. Ramanan,
Research Corporation, 1993; Hamil-
"Effects of Early and Recent Maternal
23. Social Security Administra-
ton et al. 1997 for the JOBS Program
Employment on Children from Low-
tion, Factsheet: Welfare Reform and
and its precursors and for the JOBS
Income Families," Child Develop-
SSI Childhood Disability, Washing-
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S. Parrot, S. Steinmetz, and C. Mann,
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"The New Welfare Law," Washing-
8. Quint, Bos, and Polit 1997.
Study of Families in Middle America,
ton, D.C.: Center for Budget and Pol-
Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univer-
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sity Press (forthcoming).
M.J., M.R. Dion, D.R. Morrison, N.S.
24. Kontos, S., C. Howes, M.
Weinfield, J.R. Ogawa, and P. Tabors,
16. Desai, S., P.L. Chase-Lansdale,
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25. Barber, J.S., W.G. Axinn, and
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Preschoolers'
Morrison, Zaslow, and Dion 1998;
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and
on
Siblings and Educational Attain-
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27 (1991),
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vol.
pp.
tended Pregnancy and the Well-Being
fare Reform on Teenage Parents and
932-945. Also see Belsky, J., and D.
of Children and Families, Washing-
Their Children," Future of Children,
Eggebeen, "Early and Extensive
ton, D.C.: National Academy Press,
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Maternal Employment and Young
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Children's Socioemotional Develop-
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Consequences of Teen Pregnancy,
1997.
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Washington, D.C.: Urban Institute
Marriage and the Family, vol. 53
13. Evidence is summarized in
Press, 1997. McLanahan, S.S., and
(1991), pp. 1083-1110.
Moore, K.A., M.J. Zaslow, and A.K.
G.D. Sandefur, Uncertain Childhood,
Driscoll, "Maternal Employment in
Uncertain Future, Cambridge, Ma.:
and A.K.
Moore, K.A.,
18.
Low-Income Families: Implications
Harvard University Press, 1994.
Driscoll, "Low-Wage Maternal Em-
for Children's Development," Wash-
ployment and Outcomes for Children:
26. Fein, D.J., "Impacts of Welfare
ington, D.C.: Child Trends, Inc., Feb-
A Study," Future of Children, vol. 7,
Reform on Marriage and Fertility:
ruary 1996; and in Zaslow, M.J., and
no. 1 (1997), pp. 122-127.
C.A. Emig, "When Low-Income
Early Evidence from the ABC Demon-
stration," presented at the annual meet-
Mothers Go to Work: Implications for
19. Menaghan, E.G., and T.L.
ing of the Association for Public Policy
Children," Future of Children, vol. 7,
Parcel, "Social Sources of Change in
and Management, Washington, D.C.,
no. 1 (1997), pp. 110-115.
Children's Home Environments: The
November 1997. ABC policies were
Effects of Parental Occupational
Most of the research on the
related, however, to increases in mar-
Experiences and Family Conditions,"
implications of maternal employment
riage and marital cohabitation, but only
Journal of Marriage and the Family,
for children considers what happens
among young (under age 25), short-
vol. 57 (1995), pp. 69-84.
to children when their mothers volun-
term welfare recipients.
'7
5
Martha Zaslow is
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