Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
EC 305 044
ED 399 713
Gregg, Soleil
AUTHOR
Preventing Antisocial Behavior in Disabled and
TITLE
At-Risk Students. Policy Briefs.
Appalachia Educational Lab., Charleston, W. Va.
INSTITUTION
(ED),
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
SPONS AGENCY
Washington, DC.
PUB DATE
96
RJ96006001
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*At Risk
Academic Achievement; *Antisocial Behavior;
DESCRIPTORS
Deficit
Persons; Attachment Behavior; *Attention
Disorders; Behavior Development; Behavior Problems;
*Disabilities; Elementary Secondary Education;
Emotional Problems; Hyperactivity; Individual
Characteristics; Influences; Interpersonal
*Prevention;
Competence; *Learning Disabilities;
Prosocial Behavior; Reinforcement; Self Esteem
Resilience (Personality)
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This paper reviews the research on factors that
antisocial behavior
contribute to or protect from the development of
deficit/hyperactivity
in children, especially those with attention
presents a
disorder (ADHD) and learning disabilities (LD). It also
factors that put
model to promote prosocial behavior. General risk
identified, such as
all children at risk for antisocial behavior are
and
individual risk factors related to personality, temperament,
risk factors. Risk
cognitive ability and family/community/societal
factors that are specific to children with ADHD and LD are
traits,
identified, such as individual characteristics and innate
differential
academic failure, social failure, emotional impairment,
LD are
treatment, and low self-esteem. Children with ADHD and
defiant disorder,
reported to be at special risk for oppositional
considers
conduct disorder, and delinquency. The report also
factors
resiliency in overcoming risk, noting general protective
for children
(such as good schools) and specific protective measures
importance of
with ADHD and LD (multidisciplinary intervention). The
supporting adult is
the child's attachment to at least one prosocial
Recommendations for
stressed for the promotion of prosocial behavior.
cultivation of
policy and practice address risk reduction;
and
resiliency; encouragement of bonding; increased self-esteem;
reinforcement, and
creation of a consistent system of expectations,
recognition. (Contains 89 references.) (CR)
***********************************************************************
be made
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can
from the.original document.
***********************************************************************
Policy Briefs
A publication of the
APPALACHIA EDUCATIONAL LABORATORY + 1996
help children develop resiliency
policies that discourage exclu-
PREVENTING
to overcome risk. This paper ex-
sion, suspension, and expulsion
amines the research on these
of such students. However, for
ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
factors, especially in regard to At-
children suffering from disabili-
tention Deficit /Hyperactivity
ties and other risk factors like
Disorder (ADHD) and learning
IN DISABLED AND
poverty, crime, and abuse, tradi-
disabilities (LD); presents a
tional discipline methods and
model that promotes prosocial
policies may exacerbate rather
AT-RISK STUDENTS
behavior; and suggests consider-
than remedy problem behavior.2
ations for preventive practice and
Discipline reacts to behavior
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
that has already occurred.
policymaking.
EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES INFORMATION
CENTER (ERIC)
Schools may also need to focus
ent has been reproduced as
his document
received from the person or organization
their efforts on prevention. David
originating it.
0 Minor changes have been made to
Hawkins, professor of social
RISK AND ANTISOCIAL
improve reproduction quality.
work and director of a 10-year
BEHAVIOR
Points of view or opinions stated in this
delinquency prevention study at
document do not necessarily represent
official OERI position or policy.
the University of Washington in
Research shows that most an-
The public expects schools
Seattle, worked as a probation
tisocial behavior develops from a
to socialize children as
officer in the 1970s. He says,
combination of risk factors asso-
well as to educate them.'
Dealing with [delinquent
ciated with individuals, families,
ll In fact, socialization,
teenagers] as a probation
schools, and communities. The
rather than academics, is why
officer, I saw my job some-
same factors apply across races,
many parents choose public edu-
thing akin to operating an
cultures, and classes, and their
cation over private or home
expensive ambulance ser-
effects are cumulativeexposure
school. However, public criticism
vice at the bottom of a cliff.
to multiple and interacting risk
of schools' performance in both
The probation staff were
factors exponentially increases a
roles has increased in recent
the emergency team patch-
child's overall risk.3.4 Also, anti-
years. The public wants schools
ing up those who fell over
social behavior evolves over the
to be responsible not only for im-
the edge. Many of us who
course of childhood, often begin-
proving achievement but also for
have worked in juvenile
ning in the preschool and elemen-
curbing disruptive, violent, and
corrections have come to
tary years and peaking in late
antisocial behavior. As a result,
realize that to keep young
adolescence /early adulthood.
support is growing for "zero tol-
people from falling in the
Direct, early intervention can halt
erance" discipline policies and al-
first place, a barrier is
its progress; once firmly estab-
ternative school placement for
needed at the top of the cliff.
lished, however, antisocial pat-
disruptive students.
In short, we believe that
terns become more difficult to
Discussions about discipline
prevention is more effective
change and can persist into adult -
have especially focused on spe-
and less costly than treat-
hood.2'4
cial education students.
Some
ment after the fact.
teachers and parents are against
General Risk Factors for
Research has identified risk
the inclusion of potentially dis-
Antisocial Behavior
factors that contribute to the de-
ruptive students in regular edu-
Several general factors put all
velopment of antisocial behavior
cation classrooms and schools.
children at risk for antisocial be-
as well as protective factors that
They want to change laws and
BEST COPY MAU
LE
NI)
punitive teachers.'6 One study
sources; lack fair, clearly stated,
havior, including children dis-
found punishment and lack of
consistently enforced rules; have
abled by ADHD and LD. The
praise by classroom teachers to
students who do not believe in
presence of multiple factors in-
be main factors related to delin-
the rules; lack leadership and co-
creases risk; conversely, their
operation among staff; and have
quent behavior.i7
elimination reduces risk.
Individual risk factors. Sev-
RISK FACTORS FOR ANTISOCIAL BEHAVIOR
eral inborn traits and character-
istics related to personality,
Individual
temperament, and cognitive abil-
Impulsivity; the inability to adopt a future time perspective or to
ity have been identified as risk
grasp future consequences of behavior; the inability to delay grati-
factors for later delinquent be-
fication; the inability to self-regulate emotions, especially temper;
havior. These do not doom chil-
the need for stimulation and excitement; low harm avoidance; low
dren to misbehavior or crime, but
frustration tolerance; central nervous system dysfunction; low cor-
they do make them more suscep-
tical arousal; a predisposition to aggressive behavior; low general
tible to other risks in the environ-
aptitude or intelligence; exposure to violence and abuse (as either a
ment. In addition, several factors
victim or a witness); alienation; rebelliousness; association with
other than inborn traits are
deviant peers; favorable attitudes toward deviant behavior; peer
known to place individuals at
rejection; alcohol and drug abuse; and early onset of aggressive or
risk. (See box.)
problem behavior. 2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9,10
Family/community/societal
risk factors. Family characteris-
Family/Societal
tics, as well as community and
Economic deprivation and unemployment that limit access to food,
societal factors, can increase risk
transportation, health care, etc.; parental history of devi-
shelter,
for antisocial behavior. (See box.)
ant behavior; favorable family/community attitudes toward devi-
ant behavior; harsh and /or inconsistent discipline; poor parental
School-related risk factors.
and/or community supervision and monitoring; low parental edu-
An array of school factors can be
cation (especially maternal education); family conflict; disruption
linked to delinquent behavior.
in care giving; out-of-home placement; poor attachment between
(See box.)
child and family; low community attachment and community dis-
Chronic school failure demor-
organization, as evidenced by low parent involvement in schools,
alizes children, can cause loss of
low voter turnout, and high rates of vandalism and violence; pa-
status and rejection by peers, de-
rental alcoholism; social alienation of the community; availability
stroys self-esteem, and under-
of drugs and guns; high community turnover; and exposure to
mines feelings of competence. As
violence, including violence in the home, community, and me-
a result, it can undermine a
dia.23.4
child's attachment to teachers,
parents, school, and the values
School-based
It also generates
they promote.
Academic failure beginning in elementary school; poor academic
hopelessness and helplessness.
aptitude test scoresespecially in readingbeginning in Grades 3
Children cease to believe that
and 4; lack of commitment to school; lack of belief in the validity of
their efforts make a difference in
rules; early aggressive behavior (in Grades K-3); lack of attachment
For delinquent
outcomes.w3.14
to teachers; low aspirations and goals; peer rejection and social
youngsters, "school is not a place
alienation; association with deviant peers, including grouping an-
of attachment and learning, but
tisocial children together for instruction and/or punishment; low
of alienation and failure."15
student/ teacher morale; school disorganization; ineffective moni-
In addition, an analysis of dis-
toring and management of students; and poor adaptation to school,
ruptive behavior in 600 schools
as evidenced by retention and attendance rates, assignment to
revealed that schools with disci-
special education, and student reports of not liking school, lack of
pline problems tend to be large
effort, alienation, and punishment. 2,3,4.11
and urban; lack teaching re-
2
Risk Factors Specific to
temperamental predisposition
pounding risk factors and puts
ADHD and LD
protective factors in place to pre-
expresses itself as life unfolds."33
Unfortunately, ineffective and
vent it.
The following specific
Children with inadequately
risk factors contribute to nega-
punitive responses from their en-
treated ADHD and LD are espe-
vironments have taught many
tive outcomes.
cially at risk for developing anti-
antisocial children "that they do
social behavioroppositional
Individual characteristics and
not like school or their parents
defiant disorder, conduct disor-
innate traits. Most of the indi-
and that following conventional
der, and delinquency. 3,5,6,18,19
vidual traits associated with risk
rules does not yield rewards."34
Those with ADHD experience
(listed above) characterize many
"high rates of suspension and ex-
children with ADHD and /or
Academic failure. Cognitive
pulsion from school,"" 50 to 70
impairments in children with
Recent brain imaging
LD.2,15.6
percent develop oppositional de-
studies of children with ADHD
ADHD and LD frequently cause
fiant behavior, and 20 to 40 per-
support previous evidence of
serious academic problemslow
cent show symptoms of the more
underarousal and impairment in
reading scores, language impair-
serious conduct disorder."
frontal regions of the brain
ment, and poor grades." If un-
Wexler estimates that up to 70
addressed, these impairments
thought to help individuals moni-
percent of juvenile offenders and
increase the risk of school fail-
O
40 percent of adult prisoners may
ure, amplifying any innate risks
Unfortunately,
have ADHD' a significant per-
for developing antisocial or de-
centage, considering that only
ineffective and punitive
linquent behavior.2.335.6' 36
three to seven percent of the gen-
have
responses .
Social failure. Despite their
eral population have ADHD.23
.
.
social natures and prosocial in-
taught many antisocial
Likewise, from 30 to 50 percent
tent, 50 to 80 percent of children
of adjudicated juveniles and
children "that they do
with ADHD and LD experience
adults have been found to have
and
not like school
significant peer problems and so-
LD, compared to a five to ten
.
. .
cial failure.32,38,39,4° They tend to
percent prevalence in the general
that following
be lonelier, have fewer friends,
population.' Learning disabili-
conventional rules does
and participate in fewer extra-
ties increase a child's risk of ad-
curricular and community activi-
judication by 220 percent.'
not yield rewards."
ties than their nondisabled peers.
Studies of children with ADHD
Social problems are so prevalent
reveal that 23 to 45 percent have
in children with ADHD that some
control behavior,
and
for
juvenile convictions." The rela-
consider them a hallmark char-
strategize, and set goals."'"
In
tionship between ADHD and an-
acteristic."
addition, children with ADHD
tisocial behavior is so strong that
For disabled children, "read-
have been shown to be less re-
some consider ADHD to be a pre-
ing" social cues may be as diffi-
sponsive than other children to
disposing risk factor.3.44.25
cult as reading words."
Both
environmental feedbackrein-
ADHD and LD represent not
academic and social tasks require
forcement, consequences, and
one risk factor but a constella-
children to process and respond
punishment." Finally, some chil-
tion of pervasive, interacting fac-
to cues and information in the
tors that multiply risk.
dren with ADHD and reading
The
environment, but unlike books,
disabilities may also be predis-
underlying neurological dysfunc-
which are inanimate and static,
posed to aggression."'"
tions that cause these disabilities
interpersonal communications
These traits may be physi-
impair performance in cognitive,
are dynamic and emotionally.
social, and emotional do-
ologically and biologically based
charged. Subtle nonverbal cues,
This impairment
and therefore resistant to change.
mains.'8.2s,22."
timing, and affectfacial expres-
too often snowballs into aca-
However, as Goleman points out,
sion, posture, and tone and vol-
"genes alone do not determine
demic and social failure and, ul-
ume of voicecan determine
timately, into behavioral and
behavior; our environment, es-
how others interpret meaning
affective disordersunless the
pecially what we experience and
and perceive intent.
Disabled
environment eliminates corn-
learn as we grow, shapes how a
3
4
mining whether police take an
children are more likely to
ence anxiety disorders and up to
offending child home to parents
75 percent experience depres-
misperceive or miss social cues
or to the station for booking, thus
and to perceive hostile intent
sion.203' Chronic stress at school
beginning a juvenile record. The
and home can interfere with aca-
where it doesn't exist 's.° On the
child who can "fake the socially
demic performance by destroy-
other hand, they are less likely to
desirable response"54 is more
ing brain cells and impeding
"get" jokes or to discern when
likely to be taken home; the child
brain functions involved in learn-
others are joking. 43
who responds inappropriately is
ing and memory .51'52 Schools that
Lack of inhibition can cause
more likely to go to jail for the
are "highly evaluative and au-
children with ADHD to behave
same offense (Rahr, personal
thoritarian" increase such non-
tactlessly and intrusively, domi-
communication, November 9,
productive stress.53
nate and interrupt conversations,
1995).
and not listen.43 As a result, they
Differential treatment. Chil-
A similar phenomenon may
may be seen as obstinate, bossy,
dren with ADHD and LD are
occur in schools, contributing to
insensitive, and rude.3944°" Fi-
more likely to be arrested and
high rates of punishment, sus-
nally, many children with ADHD
convicted than their nondisabled
pension, and expulsion for chil-
and LD have significant impair-
peers for the same delinquent be-
dren with ADHD and LD.
the skills needed to
ment of
haviors.5 This may be because
Research shows that children
modulate behavior in response
they lack the cognitive and Ian-
with ADHD elicit more negative
to changing demands, and so
reactions from teachers, parents,
their behavior may often seem
and other adults, and can cause
inappropriate for a particular
The majority of
more negative treatment for an
situation.37.°47
entire classroom of students.37.38
Recent studies of children with
children do well in life
ADHD with normal I.Q.s
re-
Low self-esteem. Brooks ex-
despite adversity and
vealed below average scores on
plains that "assaults to their self-
the Vineland Adaptive Behavior
exposure to multiple
worth as a consequence of the
Scale"an assessment usually
behaviors associated with ADD"
risks.
used for students with develop-
cause children "to believe that
mental disabilities. The children
their mistakes and failures are
scored poorly in subtests of so-
some kind of 'character flaw,' a
cialization, communication, and
flaw that cannot be modified. The
guage skills to avoid detection,
daily living.49 Surprisingly, the
conceal intent, and respond to
result of such thinking is a child
discrepancy between adaptive
who may give up and resort to
questions and warnings by po-
behavior and intelligence wors-
ways of coping that are ineffec-
It may also be due to poor
lice.
ened, rather than improved, with
and
tive
self-defeating."55
social skills and emotional regu-
age, underscoring the need for
Goldstein and Goldstein state
lation. Children with ADHD and
early intervention and treat-
LD tend to be "awkward and
that the child with ADHD is more
ments°
at risk for oppositional behavior
abrasive in social interactions.
because he "often cannot meet
Demeanor of the arrestee is an
Emotional impairment. Chil-
the demands of others, he fails
extremely important factor in de-
dren with ADHD and LD may
frequently, and as a result be-
termining whether an arrest will
exhibit poor emotional regula-
comes frustrated, unhappy, and
be made in routine encounters
tion, resulting in outbursts, tem-
Fouse and
more negative."56
per tantrums, overreaction,
with the police."s4
Brians suggest that well-mean-
Captain Susan Rahr, com-
impatience, and limited self -
ing but "frustrated parents and
mander of the Gang Suppression
awareness.43 The lack of emo-
Unit in Seattle, Washington,
teachers may push these children
tional control increases the risk
to the brink of despair."S7 Some
agrees that poor social skills can
of behavior problems, anxiety,
think that the defiant child may
contribute to higher arrest rates
and depression.20
for children with ADHD. Her
be fighting for self-preservation,
In addition to prevalent con-
while the depressed child has
experience shows that a child's
duct problems, 20 to 30 percent
given up.
social skills play a part in deter-
of children with ADHD experi-
4
ous ability levels, and maximize
Families /communities. Fami-
lies of resilient children exhibit
learning tiMe.3'59'6°'61'62
RESILIENCY:
Research shows that school or-
warmth, affection, and emotional
OVERCOMING RISK
ganization management,
support.4'13 Children and parents
governance, culture, and cli-
or caretakers form mutual attach-
The majority of children do
matecan
reduce
overall
ments, and children are moni-
well in life despite adversity and
measures of student disruption
tored and supervised. Likewise,
exposure to multiple risks.358
as effectively as individual treat-
communities can nurture, moni-
Children who are able to thrive
tor, supervise, and convey
Effective
ment programs.1167
despite risks are said to be resil-
schools involve "community
prosocial values to children.
Researchers
ient.3,13,58,59,60,61.62,63
agencies, students, teachers,
have identified certain protective
Schools. Rutter says, "Schools
school administrators, and par-
factors thatlike barriers at the
that foster high self-esteem and
ents" in decisionmaking," and
tops of cliffscan help promote.
promote social and scholastic
focus "on improving communi-
resilience and prevent negative
success reduce the likelihood of
cation, building trust and
outcomes.
emotional and behavioral distur-
cooperation, enhancing the
bance."65 These schools, according
organization's problem-solving
General Protective Factors
to Benard, "establish high expec-
and decision-making capabilities,
Protective factors, like risk fac-
and strengthening [the] planning
tors, can be located within indi-
process."69 Through cooperation
viduals, families, communities,
and collaboration, schools can
and schools. They apply to all
Schools that foster high
draw on internal and community
children, including those who are
resources to meet students'
self-esteem and
disabled and otherwise at risk.
needs.
The effects of these factors are
promote social and
Other school-related, protec-
cumulativethe more factors
tive factors identified through
scholastic success
present, the greater their influ-
boosting
include
research
ence.'
reduce the likelihood of
achievement in mathematics and
Individual traits.
Resilient
reading (especially 4th-grade
emotional and
children tend to be socially com-
reading scores), commitment to
petent, autonomous, not easily
behavioral disturbance.
school, and attachment to teach-
frustrated, able to bounce back,
erS.59'61'7°
not quick to give up, good na-
tured, optimistic, intelligent, ap-
Specific Protective Measures
tations for all students"includ-
pealing to adults, and able to
for ADHD and LD
ing those with disabilitiesand
elicit positive attention and sup-
Because of the pervasive ef-
provide students "the support
port. They have good problem-
fects of ADHD and LD on cogni-
necessary" to achieve them."
solving skills, a sense of purpose
tive, social, and emotional
They convey compassion, under-
and personal control, a future
performance, disabled children
standing, respect, and interest for
orientation, and high self-es-
may require specific interven-
children and families; and
teem.3.".58.59." Resilient children
tions in addition to schoolwide
present opportunities for mean-
learn to define themselves by
protective factors. These should
ingful participation.
They
their strengths and talents
be multidisciplinary and multi-
identify children's strengths and
rather than their weaknesses,
modalinvolving parents, teach-
talentstheir "islands of compe-
are valued by others for their
ers, medical and mental health
tence""and organize learning
talents, develop a sense of per-
professionals, and other support
accordingly, incorporating learn-
sonal mastery, and contribute
personnel in schools and com-
ing styles, multiple intelligences,
to society by performing so-
munitiesin addressing the
and an accelerated, rich curricu-
cially desirable tasks.136° Fe-
whole child's needs: academic,
lum that includes art, music, and
males in general have less
social, emotional, and physical."
athletics. They design classroom
proclivity for disruptive behav-
Multimodal treatment has been
instruction to accommodate vari-
ior.'
5
6
ential methods to rehearse real-
coping strategies, and academic,
shown to dramatically reduce an-
life experiences.80 School activi-
social, and life skills to disabled
tisocial behavior by reducing risk
that emphasize social
juvenile and adult offenders
ties
factors."
interactioncooperative learn-
have been shown to substan-
For disabled children, compre-
ing, field trips, drama, dance,
tially improve behavior and re-
hensive assessment and indi-
recidivism
music, and physical education
criminal
duce
vidualized education programs
rates." A remedial program
provide opportunities for devel-
(IEPs) can help identify and maxi-
oping social competence while
for juvenile offenders with pre-
mize children's strengths while
viously undetected disabilities
learning, and instruction that in-
detecting and accommodating
reduced recidivism rates to an
corporates metacognitive activi-
weaknesses that add to risk. Al-
ties helps students increase
astounding two percent."
though schools cannot change
Although research on the ef-
self-awareness.52
underlying neurological impair-
fectiveness of social-skills train-
To boost self-esteem, children
ments that affect children's cog-
ing with ADHD-diagnosed
need support in opportunities to
nitive, social, and emotional
children is contradictory and in-
develop responsibility; to contrib-
performance, they can help pre-
conclusive, several school-based
ute to school, family, and com-
vent impairments from causing
programs have been successful
munity life; to make decisions
academic and social failure by
in helping children learn social
and choices; to nurture self-dis-
providing appropriate accommo-
cipline; and to deal with failure
dations and early intervention.
and mistakes:2 These help build
Children with ADHD and LD
Early intervention
feelings of self-competence, re-
have many strengths that can
storing children's belief that their
They can be
help them learn.
programs to improve
efforts can make a difference in
very intelligent, funny, social, en-
social competence and
their lives.
ergetic, passionate, and highly
meet physical and
talented in art, music, and athlet-
Children with ADHD ex-
ics.
emotional needs have
many characteristics
hibit
been shown to increase
attributed to creativity and gift-
A MODEL FOR PROMOTING
edness.7°"74 Studies have shown
academic achievement
PROSOCIAL BEHAVIOR
them to be adept at imagery and
and to prevent later
symbolism, able to assimilate in-
Perhaps the most critical fac-
delinquent behavior.
formation by scanning, and able
tor influencing the development
to process information below the
of prosocial behavior is attach-
threshold of consciousness.
ment to at least one prosocial
competence and emotional regu-
High-IQ children with ADHD are
adult who believes in the child
lation.12877 Coleman believes that
better than similar non-ADHD
and provides unconditional ac-
school-based programs to teach
children at nonverbal problem
ceptance and support.I'2''3584°
"emotional literacy" can help
solving and score higher on mea-
Hawkins explains that prosocial
children learn to control impulses
sures of nonverbal creativity."
behavior results when children
and emotions, especially anger
To succeed in school, many
bond with prosocial adults and
and aggression, and develop self-
disabled children need to learn
peers and adopt their beliefs and
awareness.28 To be most effec-
strategies for improving social
Conversely, antisocial
values.'
tive, programs should begin
performance and controlling
behavior results if children bond
earlyeven during the preschool
emotions.28,75," Early interven-
to antisocial individuals, such as
years; be integrated into the con-
tion programs to improve so-
gang members, and adopt their
cial competence and meet
text of daily school life; provide
beliefs and values instead.
immediate, salient reinforcement
physical and emotional needs
For bonding to occur, three
and feedback, including lots of
have been shown to increase
conditions must be present:
praise for appropriate behavior;
academic achievement and to
an opportunity for bonding to
and use simulations, role-play-
prevent later delinquent behav-
take place;
ing, and other hands-on, experi-
ior:7 Other programs to teach
6
school-based risk factors. Each
cial peer groups, their behavior
-cognitive and social skills to
of these facets of risk suggests
becomes more difficult to change.
help children succeed in bond-
broad areas for preventive policy
Schools, families, and communi-
ing opportunities; and
action: school organization and
ties can work together to ensure
a consistent system of recog-
effectiveness, student achieve-
that all children are cared for and
nition and reinforcement for
ment and early intervention, par-
have prosocial adults to emulate,
accomplishments.'
ent/ community partnership, and
thus assuring the transmission of
A resilient temperament, so-
professional development. (See
prosocial beliefs and values to the
cial competence, and cognitive
box, p. 8.) For example, one such
next generation.
skills are protective factors that
action could be to require schools
help children participate success-
to assess risk as a component of
fully in prosocial bonding oppor-
safe schools or school improve-
Perhaps the most
tunities. Recognition reinforces
ment plans; however, specific
critical factor
what children are doing right,
strategies for reducing risk must
be tailored to unique student,
plus provides an incentive to per-
influencing the
sist in bonding activities and re-
school, and community needs.
development of
In his "Communities that
lationships.
prosocial behavior is
Many experts agree that at-
Care" model, Hawkins suggests
tachment to even one caring, re-
the following steps to systemati-
attachment to at least
sponsible adultwhether a
cally minimize risks:
one prosocial adult
teacher, administrator, bus
develop a vision and goals,
driver, custodian, relative, or
who believes in the
assess existing risk factors,
community membercan help
child and provides
collect data on current efforts
children become prosocia1.33233-59
unconditional
A study of the effects
to address them,
of
remediation on delinquency
acceptance and
create an action plan to target
showed that the child's bond with
unaddressed risks, and
support.
the tutor affected school attitude
develop a way to evaluate re-
and behavior more than im-
sults.'
proved grades.'
The important role of bond-
Cultivating resiliency
ing in the development of
PREVENTION:
Policies and practices that pro-
prosocial behavior offers schools
POLICY AND PRACTICE
mote the transfer of prosocial be-
an avenue for effective preven-
havior and beliefs to children (1)
Gottfredson says that "the task
tion and intervention. Mentor-
maximize opportunities for
of educating and socializing chil-
ing and similar one-on-one
bonding; (2) increase academic,
dren requires that [schools] be
programs and group activities
social, and emotional competence
arranged in ways that success-
can help children develop rela-
and self-esteem; and (3) create a
fully produce the desired re-
tionships that foster self-esteem,
consistent system of expectations,
To improve student
sult."'"
social attachment, and prosocial
reinforcement, and recognition to
behavior and school safety, policy
behavior. A promising new strat-
shape behavior.'
must address prevention as well
egy for individuals with ADHD
as treatment of misbehavior and
Maximizing opportunities
pairs children with "coaches"
support practices that both re-
If students are to
for bonding.
who help define goals, objectives,
duce risk and cultivate resilience
form attachments to school and
and plans to achieve them, while
in children.
prosocial role models, then poli-
providing support and encour-
cies and practices should ensure
Reducing risk
agement .8',82
that teachers, students, parents,
Reducing risk requires a col-
Children seek to imitate and
and communities have the time
gain approval from their role
laborative, comprehensive effort
and means to get to know each
models, whether good or bad.
to consider and minimize indi-
For example, policy ac-
vidual, family, community, and
Once children bond with antiso-
other.
7
8
tions might involve extending the
school year or the school day, re-
AREAS FOR PREVENTIVE POLICY ACTION:
vising consolidation plans and
DOES POLICY ENCOURAGE PREVENTION OF PROBLEM BEHAVIOR?
class size limits, adding commu-
learning and behavior prob-
School Organization and Effec-
nity service to graduation re-
I.
tiveness (management, gover-
creating
lems?
or
quirements,
a
program to assign personal
nance, culture, and climate)
Do schools include special edu-
coaches or mentors for students
Do schools involve teachers,
cation students in regular edu-
with IEPs or recurring discipline
students, parents, and commu-
cation classrooms?
Related school prac-
referrals.
nity members in decisionmak-
Do schools include special edu-
tices might include improving
ing?
cation students in performance
school attendance, looping
Do schools have high expecta-
accountability measures: state-
(teachers and classes stay to-
tions for learning and behav-
wide testing, attendance, and
gether for two or more years),
ior for all children and help all
dropout rates?
block scheduling, teaming, coop-
children achieve them?
Do schools disproportionately
erative learning, mentoring or
Do schools clearly communi-
discipline students with dis-
coaching, and one-on-one tutor-
cate expectations for learning
abilities?
in g.61,70.84.85
and behavior to students?
Policies and practices that sup-
III. Parent/Community Partnerships
Do schools have a consistent
port prosocial bonding do not
system of reinforcement and
Do schools work with parents
isolate and alienate children un-
recognition to help shape be-
and communities to educate
necessarily through tracking, spe-
havior?
and care for children?
placement,
education
cial
suspension, or expulsion, and do
Do schools provide alterna-
Do schools involve parents/
not encourage the formation of
tives to suspension and expul-
communities in safe schools/
deviant peer groups by placing
sion?
school improvement plans?
"problem" children together for
Do school practices promote
Do schools provide informa-
instruction or discipline.
student engagement and at-
tion to parents about how to
tachment?
help their children learn and
Increasing academic, social,
appropriately
in
behave
and emotional competence and
Do schools conduct risk assess-
self-esteem.
school?
Because social,
ment as part of safe schools/
emotional, and cognitive skills
school improvement plans?
Do schools collaborate with
are essential for achieving aca-
other agencies to meet family/
Student Achievement/ Early In-
demic and behavioral expecta-
II.
community needs?
tions, policies that support the
tervention
development of personal compe-
IV. Professional Development
Do schools intervene early to
tence and self-esteem should pro-
identify and assist students
Have teachers been trained to
vide the impetus to identify and
who fail to meet expectations
use a variety of instructional
address the whole child's needs.
for learning and behavior?
and classroom management
For example, multidisciplinary
strategies to prevent academic
Do schools evaluate students'
evaluation to determine excep-
failure and problem behavior
social, emotional, and adaptive
tionalityespecially ADHD and
with all children, including
functioning, as well as cogni-
LDshould include assessment
those with disabilities?
tive functioning, as part of
of adaptive, social, and emotional
multidisciplinary evaluation?
Do preservice programs in
functioning as well as cognitive
state schools of education pro-
Do IEPs address social, emo-
functioning.
vide this training?
tional, and adaptive problems
Policy actions should encour-
as well as academic problems?
Have state department of edu-
age and support practices that
cation inservice programs pro-
allow for student diversity dif-
Do schools provide assistance
vided this information?
ferent ways and rates of learn-
to nondisabled students with
ing, as well as strengths, talents,
8
servicefor all but the most seri-
For instance,
and weaknesses.
ous offenses, to keep from fur-
preserving budgets for athletics
CONCLUSION
ther isolating and alienating
and the arts not only supports
children who are already mar-
achievement" but also provides
No silver bullet can eliminate
ginally attached to the school cul-
opportunities for children to de-
behaviors resulting from neuro-
Policy can also promote
velop and showcase strengths
ture.
logical impairment, disadvan-
equity in expectations and treat-
and talents that foster resilience,61
tage, and social disintegration.
ment for poor, minority, and dis-
increase self-esteem, and boost
But those who care for the
abled children by focusing
social standing.° Use of indi-
nation's childrenschools, fami-
attention on performance indica-
vidual instruction, alternative as-
lies, and communitiescan pull
tors for at-risk groups. For ex-
sessments, cross-age grouping,
together to consider what is go-
ample, including children with
and well-designed supplemental
ing wrong and what can be done
disabilities in statewide testing
and resource programs; and at-.
to prevent it, based on solid
and aggregating their attendance,
tention to multiple intelligences
knowledge of how children de-
suspension, expulsion, and drop-
and learning styles allow children
velop antisocial or prosocial be-
to achieve basic skills at their own
havior. By identifying both risk
rates while avoiding the nega-
factors and protective factors, re-
preventive systems
tive outcomes associated with re-
.
.
.
search has given us the tools to
tention.59,87 Cooperative learning
create alternatives to
build solutionsbarriers at the
groups, conflict resolution and
tops of cliffs that keep children
suspension and
anger management training,
from fallingand has restored
group activities, and counseling
expulsionlike
our hope that we, collectively and
help children to learn alternatives
individually, can make a differ-
community servicefor
to antisocial behavior, to deal
ence.
with their emotions, and to get
all but the most serious
along with others.
References
offenses, to keep from
Creating a consistent system
1.Clune, W. (1995). Education fi-
nance in the 21st century:
Pro-
of expectations, reinforcement,
further isolating and
through
ductive
education
and recognition. Environments
Paper
adequacy and efficiency.
alienating children
.
that get desired results define de- . .
prepared for the NEA State Fi-
nance Workshop, May 18-19,
sired and undesired behavior, de-
Denver, CO.
termine when they occur, and
2.Gottfredson, G. (1987). Ameri-
out rates can provide account-
apply consequencesrewards
can education: American delin-
ability data to policymakers and
and punishmentsthat influence
quency. Today's Delinquent (pp.
help to evaluate program effec-
the rate at which they are dis-
5-70). Pittsburgh, PA: National
Center for Juvenile Justice.
tiveness and school reform ef-
played.' Such environments es-
Control-
3.Hawkins, J.
(1995).
forts."
tablish high expectations for all
ling crime before it happens:
Although state policies de-
students; a clear system of rules
Risk-focused prevention.
Na-
fine standards for learning and
and consequences that are con-
tional Institute of Justice Journal,
behavior, local school practices
229, pp. 10- 18.
sistently, fairly, and equitably
determine whether students
4.Thornberry, T. (1994). Risk fac-
enforced; and cooperative, col-
In L.
tors for youth violence.
laborative, and caring
have the means to achieve them.
cli-
McCart (Ed.), Kids and violence
Strategic planning for school
mates."'87
Washington, DC:
(pp. 8-14).
improvement, shared decision-
State policy can influence
National Governors AssOcia-
making, and collaboration
tion.
whether school discipline sys-
5.Keilitz, I., & Dunivant, N.
among school and related staff,
tems balance traditional reactive
The relationship be-
(1986).
and punitive measures with
families, and communities help
tween learning disability and
design and build the structure
proactive and preventive ones.
juvenile delinquency: Current
children need to achieve state
state of knowledge.
Remedial
For instance, preventive systems
and Special Education, 7(3), 18-
standards and meet academic
create alternatives to suspension
26.
and behavioral expectations.89
and expulsionlike community
9
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