Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
IR 017 288
ED 386 162
Wells, Rosalie
AUTHOR
A Review of Computer-Mediated Communication for
TITLE
Distance Education: Teaching and Design
Considerations.
Army Research Inst., Boise, ID.
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Access to Information; Case Studies; Computer
DESCRIPTORS
Assisted Instruction; *Computer Mediated
Communication; *Distance Education; Educational
Technology; Educational Trends; *Instructional
Design; Nontraditional Education; Research Reports;
*Teaching Methods; Technological Advancement
ABSTRACT
is one of the
Computer-mediated communication (CMC)
most recent technologies to be adopted for use in distance education.
It provides the means to establish an electronic classroom that is
accessible to participants separated by physical distance or time.
The literature on CMC is as varied as are the many applications. Most
CMC publications are either general descriptions of the medium or
projections of new applications within educational and corporate
institutions. This review, however, focuses on a small subset of
publications with findings and recommendations derived from empirical
studies about the use of CMC for distance education. Some findings
from these studies are sufficiently robust that they suggest some
general trends. While CMC is found to be an ideal medium for
fostering discussion among distance students and enhancing
participation rates, it is observed that a sufficient critical mass
of students and a facilitative teaching style are essential to
fostering and maintaining online dialog. Because success in a CMC
course is dependent, in large part, on convenient access to a
computer, institutions are exploring different ways to increase
computer accessibility. (Contains 75 references.) (SLD)
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*
Reproductions supplied by EDRS are the best that can be made
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from the original document.
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U.S. DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
Office of Educational Research and Improvement
EDUCATION' '
RESOURCES INFORMi TION
CENTER (ERIC)
0 This document has been reproduced as
received from the person or orgamzation
originating iL
0 Minor changes have been made to improve
reproduction quality
Points of view or opinions staled in this docu-
ment do not necessarily represent official
OERi position Or policy
A Review of Computer-Mediated
Communication for Distance Education:
Teaching and Design Considerations
by Rosalie Wells
PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Ruth H. Phelps
2
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (MC)
for Distance
Computer-Mediated Communication
A Review of
Considerations
Teaching and Design
Education:
Introduction
(CMC) is one of the
Computer-mediated communication
in distance
to be adopted for use
most recent technologies
has
of CMC for teaching
The first application
education.
offered by the
1981 writing course
been variously given as a
and a 1982 course
College (Feenberg 1989)
Colorado Technical
In January 1982, the
(Paulsen 1987).
offered on The Source
became the first
Sciences Institute (WBSI)
Western Behavioral
through
offer an educational program
non-academic institution to
CMC (Feenberg 1987).
classroom that
establish an electronic
CMC is a means to
otherwise be separated
participants who may
is accessible to
Students and an
physical distance.
by time zones and
connect
computers and modems to
instructor use their personal
running a conferencing
computer that is
to a central host
to the host
Participants have 24 hour access
software program.
leave messages
it up to receive or to
computer and can dial
be logged
More than one person can
for other participants.
interaction) but typically
time (synchronous
on at the same
in
A student can engage
is asynchronous.
the communication
the
with another student or
individual communication
other
in group projects with
instructor, or participate
Harasim 1990;
For more information, see
distance students.
1991.
and Kaye 1989; Wells
Mason 1989c; Mason
been
few years, CMC has
In a matter of only a
models:
wide range of educational
implemented according to a
in the Open
level (1364 students
on an industrial
a.
Introduction to Information
University's (OU) course on
200),
Technology, e.g. DT
Institute
the New Jersey
in bimodal institutions, e.g.
b.
Institute of
and the New York
of Technology (NJIT)
Technology
proposed graduate programs
in established, new, or
c.
Boise State
Nova University;
(Connected Education,
University)
University; Athabasca
teachers (e.g. the
by self-selected
for distance teaching
d.
Studies in Education) (OISE);
Ontario Institute for
students in face-to-face
communications adjunct for
as a
e.
of Guelph);
classes (e.g. University
various
individual classes from
in projects linking
g.
Learning Network; National
countries, e.g. Intercultural
Geographic Kids Network
is as distributed as these
The literature on CMC
review was found in
Material cited in this
implementations.
books
proceedings, as well as in
internal reports, conference
3
psychology, technology,
to education,
and journals pertaining
Most CMC publications are
computers, and communication.
projections of
of the medium or
either general descriptions
corporate
within educational and
new applications
review focuses on a smaller
In contrast, this
institutions.
recommendations are
whose findings and
subset of publications
of CMC for
studies regarding the use
derived from empirical
distance education.
the Potential of CMC
Designing a Course to Maximize
Course Content
matter
the range of subject
One way to discuss
is to examine what courses
appropriate for a CMC classroom
list is beyond
While an exhaustive
have already been taught.
included:
review, CMC courses have
the scope of this
Source
Institution
Content Area
Undergraduate
(Smith 1990)
University of Arizona
foreign language labs
(Smith 1988)
Univ. of West Florida
physics (special
relativity)
(Phillips, Santoro,
Pennsylvania State
group performance
Kuehn 1988)
skills
(Lorentsen
Jutland Open University
humanities;
1989b)
(Denmark)
archaeology
(Bissell, et
Rochester Institute of
history
al. 1987)
Technology
computer science
(Mason 1990)
Open University
(Paulsen 1989)
NKI (Norway)
(Soby 1989)
NKS (Norway)
(Meurs & Bouhuijs 1989)
Dutch Open University
(Bissell et al. 1987)
Rochester Institute of
Technology
4
Graduate
(Davie 1988; Harasim
OISE
education
1986)
2
et al. 1991a)
(Hahn
Research Institute
engineer training; Army
leadership training
computer science
Joslyn, and
(Scigliano
Nova University
,
Levin 1989)
Doctorates)
(online Master's and
1988)
(Scriven,
Brisbane College of
Advanced Education
(Graduate Diploma)
Nova University
Child and Youth Studies
(Doctorate)
Boise State University
Instructional and
Performance Technology
(online Master's)
Connected Education
Media Studies
(online Master's)
Athabasca University
Distance Education
(online Master's; proposed)
at
wide range of subject areas
This list suggests the
that has already
and graduate level
both the undergraduate
developments in
New software
this medium.
being taught with
and Digital Video
graphics and simulations
the areas of computer
of courses
further increase the range
Interactive (DVI) should
(See Alexander and
effectively taught with CMC.
that can be
1989).
Lincoln 1989; Van Duren
Group Work in CMC
instructional technology,
other forms of
In contrast to
asynchronous, that is, the
interaction via CMC is
most of the
interacting at the
do not have to be
students and instructor
CMC to
asynchronicity that enables
It is this
same time.
significant
of the most
at a distance, one
support group work
(For an example of
technology.
potentials of this
For
1991a).
see Hahn et al.
synchronous working groups,
assigned
work is defined as
this review, group
the purpose of
producing
for the purpose of
collaboration among students
individual product.
either a joint or
studies of actual
few published case
However, there are
using CMC, despite
supported at a distance
group work
unique among
potential makes CMC
suggestions that this
1987).
(e.g. Harasim 1989; Kaye
educational technologies
categories, intra-class
falls into two
Available literature
Intra-class collaboration
working groups.
and inter-class
class who are
of students from the same
includes small groups
3
Most of the
instructed to work together on an assignment.
studies of
available literature on this type concerns case
The main types of groups used at
graduate students at OISE.
seminars, online
OISE include: plenary and small group
partnerships, and
working groups of 5-8 students, learning
Learning partnerships composed
team debates (Harasim, 1989).
socializing students
of two students have proven valuable for
acquisition of computer
to the medium and encouraging rapid
online
Once students are accustomed to
skills (Davie, 1988).
be
communication, larger working groups of 5-8 students can
which may then
assigned to formulate an online presentation,
Harasim 1986).
be critiqued by classmates (Davie, 1988;
revolutionary forms
Inter-class groups represent almost
be sustained by any
of collaboration that could not readily
These groups engage
other form of instructional technology.
time zones, and often
in class-to-class communication across
Examples of such projects
across cultures and continents.
(ICLN) (Levin,
include the Intercultural Learning Network
Kids Network
Kim, and Riel 1990), the National Geographic
1989), the
(Newman, Goldman, Brienne, Jackson, and Magzamen
Orillas (Sayers and
Rappi Project (Hart 1987), and Project
in one class use a
In these projects, students
Brown 1987).
and various
computer, modem, communications software,
in classes
combinations of networks to interact with students
the world.
that may be located across town or around
the age of
These projects are remarkable for both
Students
projects.
student participants and the range of
1987) to middle,
have ranged in age from elementary (Hart
Riel, Miyake, and
high school, and university levels (Levin,
Such projects have demonstrated that students
Cohen 1987).
in work supported
of all school ages can successfully engage
planning and an appropriate
by CMC, given sufficient teacher
level of computer support.
expanded the range
These projects have also successfully
delivered via CMC.
of subjects that have been successfully
wide
Cross-cultural collaboration has occurred across a
social sciences
spectrum of subject areas, including:
sciences (Levin, Rogers,
(Butler and Jobe 1987), natural
1985), geography
Waugh, and Smith 1989; Levin and Cohen
1990), foreign language
(Rogers, Andres, Jacks, and Clausen
1987), as
literacy (Cohen and Miyake 1986; Sayers and Brown
writing (Owen 1989; Riel
well as creative and technical
1985).
work at a distance
The capacity of CMC to support group
potential contributions
may be one of CMC's greatest
In addition, cross-cultural
to distance education.
distance
collaborations may even change the face of
These interactions represent a fundamental
education.
4
6
and distance instruction, as
synthesis of face-to-face
projects with their distant peers.
classes collaborate on
Classes
Participation Rates in CMC
various subjects
for instruction in
CMC has been used
But
accordinTto a range-of models.
and implemented
hotline for
has been used simply as a
regardless whether CMC
rate of
electronic classroom, students'
questions or as an
cited datum in case
the most frequently
usage is probably
in terms of public and
Participation rates, measured
studies.
function of various factors:
private messages, can vary as a
option of
do students have the
self-selection, i.e.
a.
1989);
version of the course (Kaye
taking a non-CMC
whether CMC is used as
implementation, i.e.
the model of
b.
class, a
adjunct to a face-to-face
a communication
electronic classroom;
hotline for questions, or an
of
indicated by basing a portion
teacher expectations,
c.
participation or by requiring a
the final grade on
week.
certain number of messages a
factors, it may be
is impacted by various
While participation
rates
to note some of the
helpful for comparison purposes
that have been reported.
100 students
The Computer as a Tool,
In NKI's CMC course,
1.
entries (Soby
of 1246 written
produced a total number
of comments made in
This total reflects the sum
1989).
the course,
4 class sections of
the various conferences,
important to note
However, it is
and the online cafe.
lurkers
30 of the students were
that approximately
provided).
active" (no numbers
while 25 were "super
making written
who read without
(Lurkers are participants
students only logged on
The remaining 45
contributions.)
a few times.
by the Dutch Open
pilot course conducted
In the nine month
2.
following participation rates were
University (D0u), the
(Meurs and Bouhuijs 1989).
recorded for 53 students
675
included 288 sent to a tutor,
Student-initiated messages
exchanged
(this number includes 486
sent to other students
and 74 sent to others.
between two students),
statistics for graduate
Davie (1988) compared usage
3.
There were
in 1986 and 1987.
education classes he taught
The
15 in 1987.
in the 1986 course and
11 participants
week was 9.4
participants logged on per
mean number of
notes
The mean number of
for 1987.
for 1987 and 14.3
in 1986
main conference was 19.2
entered per week in the
in the main
Of the notes entered
and 18.1 in 1987.
5
7
authored per student was 16.3
conference, the mean number
in 1986 and 11.8 in 1987.
Evaluation, Davie instituted
In a 1989 CMC class on Program
requiring a specific number of
several changes, including
week
Over the course of the 13
logons per student.
1950 notes (Davie, e-mail
semester, 13 students produced
communication, November 1990).
to two graduate education
The following figures pertain
4.
Harasim (1989): One course with 38
courses taught by
over 12
participants generated 3,132 conference messages
Another
weeks, averaging 7 messages/person/week.
participants generated 3,177 notes
graduate class with 29
rate of 9 notes/person/week.
over 12 weeks, at an average
Victoria's certificate course for
In the University of
5.
"Computing Tools for
managers and professionals,
logged between January 19
Management", 574 messages were
reported
The following distribution was
and April 22.
messages, the marker
(Muzio 1989): 24 students wrote 183
the course coordinators
and instructor sent 344, and
authored 44.
the first large-scale
The Open University's DT 200 course was
6.
and 65 tutors.
implementation of CMC with 1364 students
entered in the national
More than 3000 messages were
accessible to all
'forum' conference that was
each
The combined 65 local conferences,
participants.
students to one
with a ratio of approximately 25
Over 750 messages
tutor, generated over 4500 messages.
closed conference for the 65 course
were entered in the
(See Mason 1989a for a thorough
tutors (Thomas 1989).
in this course.)
examination of participation rates
made concerning these
Various observations should be
First, there is no reason to assume
participation rates.
learning from the online interaction
that the only students
Lurkers may be learners too.
participants.
are the actual
have their own form of lurkers,
(Even face-to-face classes
i.e. listeners but not speakers).
number of logons may
Second, specifying a mandatory
participation rates among certain
be one means to increase
the medium
For example, students new to
groups of students.
levels
clear specification of performance
may benefit from
While requiring a certain
(McCreary and Van Duren 1987).
to mitigate the freedom of
level of participation may seem
participation may be the only way an
adult learners, online
(In a
online attendance.
instructor can assess a student's
instructor can see who's present, even
face-to-face classroom, an
necessarily guarantee attention.)
though attendance does not
6
8
cited here provide some paramaters
The performance rates
But as Mason
look like.
for what a CMC discussion can
almost uniformly missing is
(1989a) points out, what is
of these messages.
information about the actual content
the
provide any information regarding
Sheer auantitv does not
This factor should
educational quality of the exchanges.
studies.
receive greater attention in future
Participation
Voluntary and Required
most attempts to
Because CMC is relatively new,
settings have entailed adding it
implement it in educational
It has been adopted
materials.
to already existing course
tutorials, provide students
to: substitute for face-to-face
give
time for instructor feedback, and
with a faster turnaround
either for informal dialog or for
students access to their peers,
continuum
These reasons constitute a
formal group assignments.
strictly voluntary to the more mandatory
of usage ranging from
integrated into the
when CMC is throughly
usage that results
While it is difficult to
educational requirements of a course.
implementation models cited
generalize findings across the
studies indicate that the
earlier, results from various case
rates.
model chosen tends to impact usage
likely to result in low
Generally, voluntary usage is
For
participants are students or tutors.
usage, whether the
voluntary usage of CMC for
example, the OU examined tutors'
exchange of
communication, mutual support and the
unused, with tutors
The medium went largely
information.
motivated to use it only
acknowledging that they would be
1987).
when required to do so (Mason
obtained with students at the
Similar results have been
(Meurs and Bouhuijs 1989), NKI
OU (Mason 1987), the (100u)
Research Institute (ARI) (Hahn
(Paulsen 1989), and the U.S. Army
the D0u, and
Students in the studies by the OU,
et al. 1991a).
while participants in the ARI study
NKI were all undergraduates,
In these cases
working at the graduate level.
were engineers
interaction was encouraged but not
where student-to-student
mandatory number of
required (either in the form of a
voluntary
formal group work), strictly
messages per week or
lower than course designers had
usage was considerably
anticipated.
with voluntary usage,
Several factors can interact
of students, the time
including the educational level
itself, and the importance of
intensive nature of the medium
Educational level
guide student participation.
a model to
with
the amount of participation,
has been found to impact
students contributing at a more
senior level and graduate
compared to the more sporadic or
regular even intensive rate,
(McCreary and Van Duren
read-only level of undergraduates
7
9
CMC is
This finding does not suggest that
1987).
levels, only that
inappropriate for less senior educational
designing these courses to
additional care must be taken in
insure sufficient student motivation.
interact with voluntary usage
A second factor that can
Depending upon the
is the time intensive nature of CMC.
subjected to lengthy logon
software, participants can be
and printing of
procedures, time-consuming down-loading
rather tedious job of
information, and sometimes even the
Results
into notebooks.
organizing this printed information
that course designers may
from several evaluations suggest
administrative tasks (Hahn et
tend to under-estimate these
For example,
1989).
al. 1991a; Meurs and Bouhuijs
students to spend a
designers of the ARI CMC course expected
the course; results of a
total of 8 hours per week on
students were actually
formative evaluation revealed that
week, with fully half
spending an average of 16 hours per
administrative tasks related to the
that time devoted to
computer.
relationship between voluntary
A third reason for the
students at many universities
and low usage is that distance
to
to having convenient access
may simply be unaccustomed
is, if hardware and software
each other (convenient, that
Accordingly, students may need a
problems are minimal).
education which shows them
model of collaborative distance
justify
benefits of peer interaction can
ways in which the
For example, an
of interaction.
the additional time demands
showed that students
evaluation of the OU's DT 200 course
lurking rather than writing
attributed their propensity for
that the
However, Mason (1989b) concluded
to lack of time.
actually "the lack of a clear
more fundamental reason was
their conception of how to
model on which to base
participate" (p. 137).
integral CMC is to a course, the
In general, the more
simply
will be to use it because they
more motivated students
without doing so (Feenberg and
cannot succeed in the course
Ways to integrate CMC have
Bellman 1990; Lorentsen 1989a).
number of logons per week or
included: requiring a mandatory
(Hahn et al. 1991a);
a minimum number of messages
(such as quiz
insuring that important information
to questions) is
questions/answers or instructor responses
computer; basing a certain
only accessible through the
content of the messages
percenta4e of the final grade on the
assigning group work; and
(McCreary and Van Duren 1987);
rewriting paper-based correspondence
actually converting or
(Hahn et al. 1991b).
materials for computer delivery
associated with requiring this
There are various costs
First, an institution is thereby
level of participation.
8
10
