Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
IR 015 158
ED 334 991
,ndall; Januszewski, Alan
Koetting, J.
AUTHOR
Theory Building and Educational Technology:
TITLE
Foundations for Reconceptualization.
PUB DATE
91
16p.; In: Proceedings of Selected Research
NOTE
Presentations at the Annual Convention of the
Association for Educational Communications and
Technology; see IR 015 132.
Information Analyses (070) -- Viewpoints
PUB TYPE
(Opinion/Position Papers, Essays, etc.)
(120)
Speeches/Conference Papers (150)
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
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*Critical Theory; Definitions; Educational Change;
DESCRIPTORS
Educational Philosophy; *Educational Research;
*Educational Technology; *Educational Theories;
*Hermeneutics; Research Design
*Empirical Analysis
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
This discussion of the contested/problematic concept
(i.e., words that are open to debate and discussion as to their
ocuses on the notion of theory as one example in
meaning)
educational technology. Arguing that the notions of contested and
problematic suggest debate, re-interpretation, and the need for
dialogue with others to establish meaning, this paper suggests that
through the diversity of understandings of this concept, new language
can be used to talk about the work of educational technologists. It
is expected that chis new language, in turn, will open new
possibilities for dialogue and praxis in the field of educational
technology. The discussion begins by addressing the question of why
theory is used. Distinctions are made between empirical-analyti::
sciences, the historical-hermeneutic sciences, and tr? critical
sciences. The word theory is then discussed in the context of the
field of educational technology, and it is noted that the Association
for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) definition of
educational technology (1977) endorses the empirical-analytic
approach, a descriptive theory concerned with prediction and control.
Nagel's fourth sense of theory as a systematic analysis of a set of
related concepts (1969) is seen as promising for this discussion,
since theory in this sense becomes both a conceptual analysis of a
given word and a normative statement of its use. It is argued that
theory interpreted in this fashion becomes the grounding of new
understanding and the potential for change. It is concluded that the
limitations of the prediction/control cycle can be broken through
hermeneutical and critical inquiry, giving the field a radically
different language and conceptual basis from which to work. (6
references) (BBM)
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Theory Building and Educational Technology: Foundations for
Reconceptualization
Authors:
J. Randall Koetting
Alan Januszewski
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
BEST COPY AVAILABLE
Michael R. Simonson
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
INFORMATION CENTER (ERIC)."
TECHNOLOGY:
THEORY BUILDING AND EDUCATIONAL
FOUNDATIONS roa RECONCEPTUALIEATION
be referred to as
There are words, phrases, ideas that can
i.e. these words are open to
contested/problematic concepts,
Not only do the
debate and discussion as to their meaning.
their use, but they
change depending on
meanings of these words
This is not a
people.
can mean different things to different
specificity.
until it is given some
radical position to espouse
and politics can be
For example, the words democracy, capitalism,
them,
depending on who utters
considered contested/problematic,
of education words
In the field
or hcw the utterances are made.
be seen as
research, and methods can
like education, curriculum,
contested and problematic
contested/problematic.
The notions of
of
They suggest some notion
suggest debate, re-interpretation.
of
the establishment
necessitating dialogue with others as to
meaning.
of educational technology
The literature within the field
the contested/
to the issue of
does not often address itself
think of our field
We tend not to want to
problematic concept.
debate.
Yet
for philosophical/theoretical
as a battleground
Words
in this field.
there are cont'ested/problematic concepts
instruction, theory, design,
such as science, technology,
concepts that are
research, etc., can all be seen as contested
While
of educational tecnnology.
frequently used in the field
literature in general,
there are on-going debates in educat4onal
3
1
396
there is not much work that looks at differing conceptualizations
However, when the
educational technology.
and frameworks within
Association for Educational Communications and Technology in the
Definition of Educational Technology
United States published the
shut off such debate but rather to
(1977), the intent was not to
promote it.
the field
The limited discussion in the recent literature of
is concerned with the importance of
of educational technology
The discussion seems
theory to the field (cf. Reigeluth, 1983).
What is
questions: Why use theory?
to center around three
An explicit
and What kind of theories are there?
theory?
questions will lead inevitably to an
discussion of one of these
In this paper we will discuss
implicit discussion of the others.
example of the contested/problematic
the notion of theory as one
of
We will suggest that through the diversity
concept.
language can be used to talk
understandings of this concept, new
This new language,
about the work of educational technologists.
possibilities for dialogue and praxis
in turn, will open new
within the field of educational technology.
WHY USE THEORY?
A useful way to enter into a discussion of theory would be to
knowledge, or ways in
identify the differing ways for arriving at
This will help us to understand the
which we know the world.
This is suggested by the work of
nature of theoretical work.
philosophical positioning
Habermas (1971), and thus has a certain
Distinctions are made between the empirical-
in critical theory.
4
391
analytic sciences, the historical-hermeneutic sciences, and the
Habermas' notion of interest will also
critical sciences.
provide a conceptual framework for
our discussion.
dabermas' theory of knowledge has three forms, or processes,
of inquiry.
Knowledge can be arrived at through empirical-
analytic science, historical-hermeneutical science, and critical
science.
These forms/viewpoints of knowledge result in three
categories of possible knowledge:
Information that expands our power of technical
control; interpretations that make possible the
orientation of action within common traditions;
and analyses that free consciousness from its
dependence on hypostatized
These view-
powers.
points originate in the interest structure of a
species that is linked in its roots to definite
means of social organization: work, language,
and power (Habermas, 1971, p.313).
These categories of possible knowledge thus establish the
"specific viewpoints" from which
we can know reality in any way
whatsoever: "orientation toward technical control, toward mutual
understanding in the conduct of life, and toward emancipation
from seemingly 'natural' constraints" (Habermas, 1971, p.311).
These modes of inquiry with constitutive interests delineate the
way in which individuals generate knowledge.
The notion of knowledge constitutive interests linked with the
differing sciences situates theorizing within the realm of
political discourse.
The notion of knowledge constitutive
interests means that all our attempts at explaining/understanding
our world (context) are non-neutral activities.
Inherent in our
attempts to make sense out of our world are particular interests.
3
398
The idea of interests is not a pure abstraction, nor is it an
Interests are not causes or determinates
empirical proposition.
They are general orientations/cognitive
in and of themselves.
strategies toward inquiry.
Knowledge constitutive interests are formed in the "medium of
This means
p.313).
work, language and power" (Habermas, 1971,
that language is political. The language that we express
We exercise power and influence
ourselves in is political.
But, we can also exercise power and
through our use of words.
have, for
influence by determining the meaning that words
The
Thus knowledge is not neutral.
ourselves and for others.
The way we go about
neutral.
way we go about knowing is not
knowing the world happens through a dialectical relationship that
shaped by our world and we help to
we have with the world: we are
This also suggests that theorizing about that
shape that world.
therefore, theory itself
world is part of a social process, and
Theorizing, as a social
can be considered a social construction.
humankind's desire to
construction/social process, arises out of
explain and/or understand and/or change the human condition.
Theory can serve to help explain both the conscious and
unconscious, as they relate to nature, society, and our personal
Theory can be seen as a hypothetical proposition
existence.
which can be proven/disproven through empirical testing.
It
This notion of
(cause/effect) .
suggests causal relationships
"explaining things" is the basis for rational thought.
of such endeavours.
Nomological knowledge is the result
4
3 9,-)
Homological suggests lawlike propositions based
on the results of
This form of theory
the testing of the hypotheses.
an interest in prediction and
(empirical/analytic theory) has
control.
Theory can serve to help humankind better understand "the
world", and hence ourselves and others within a given context,
the meanings attached to social customs, etc.
When engaged in
this form of understanding/research, the way in which we relate
to what is being investigated is seen through different lenses.
We use an interpretive mode of understanding/theorizing.
This
theoretical stance to the world sees reality as a social
This form of theory (historical-hermeneutic
construction.
theory) has an interest in better understanding that social
construction through consensual agreement.
We can use theory to gain insight into seemingly "given"
realities, and through a process of reflective critique, we can
examine the social construction of reality and seek
ways to
analyze the contradictions found in reality (the "is" and the
"ought").
Through a shared vision we can begin to set about the
enormous difficulty of changing individual and group context.
Hence a different understanding of reality is needed in order to
This form of
act within that context, to effect change.
theorizing (critical theory) has an interest in emancipation.
By
emancipation is meant the possibility of individuals freeing
themselves from "law-like rules and patterns of action in
and history so that they can reflect and act on the
'nature
dialectical process of creating and recreating themselves and
In this sense,
their institutions" (Apple, 1975, p.126) .
emancipation is a continual process of the "critique of everyday
life".
Fundamental differences separate these modes of knowing and
The differences are of a philosophical nature.
Each
theorizing.
mode of inquiry has its own understanding of the nature of
knowledge (epistemology) ,
the
reality (ontology), the nature of
value
nature of questions asked about reality, i.e. what is of
The need for theory further arises when there are
(axiology).
How do we separate
multiple understandings for the same reality.
that makes sense within our own
out the theoretical stance
experience?
WHAT IS THEORY?
Acknowledging the need for theory also involves some
Thus far we have spoken in
understanding of what theory is.
In this section we want to discuss
broad and encompassing terms.
the word theory in the context of the field of educational
Acknowledging the need for theory also involves some
technology.
The AECT in The Definition of
understanding of what theory is.
Ritalanal_IlslalLeix (1977) seems to have endorsed a specific
It is stated that "the
notion of the meaning of the word theory.
term 'theory', while often used colloquially as an antonym for
the terms 'practice' or 'practical' has a precise meaning:
considerable data, proposed
a general principle, supported by
1.
relations
as an explanation of a phenomena; a statement of the
6
believed to prevail in a comprehensive body of facts (English 6
English, 1958, p.551);
a principal or set of principles that explain a number of
2.
related facts and predict new outcomes based on these facts
(AECT, 1977, pp.20-21).
(Wheeler, et al., 1975, p.638)".
The AECT's idea of theory is based on the view of the "hard"
The explicit emphasis is
sciences, or the empirical sciences.
placed on the 'facts' upon which some principles are based.
A
further emphasis is placed on the ideas of explanat!on and
There is no mention of the concept of understanding.
prediction.
If it was considered at all it seems that it was intended to be
prediction
implicitly bound to the ideas of explanation and
(control). But understanding a particular phenomenon is different
Understanding something
than trying to explain or predict it.
Understanding
has a different goal than explanation/prediction.
Understanding
the parts.
looks toward the whole phenomenon, not
identifies relations among parts, the interconnectedness, the
Referring to our earlier discussion, empirical-analytic
gestalt.
theory has an interest in technical control. Understanding has a
practical interest in consensual agreement, consensus as to the
meaning of particular phenomenon.
Since meaning resides in individuals and not in the
phenomenon, one must engage in a dialogic endeavour to reach
Through dialogue,
something.
agreement regarding the meaning of
This theoretical stance
agreement can be reached (consensus).
of reality, seeing something in a
can lead to new understandings
new way.
This use of theory suggests multiple interpretations of
This form of theorizing moves back and forth
the same event.
between theory and practice.
Theory informs practice and vice
This understanding of theory does not necessarily lead to
versa.
action/change.
Another
understanding of theory, i.e. critical theory, has an
Within critical theory, emancipation
interest in emancipation.
Thus theory can be
suggests change, social and/or personal.
identified by its methodological interests: technical control,
consensual agreement (understanding), and emancipation.
In other
words, theory can be identified by what it is "supposed to do":
create nomological knowledge, i.e. law-like propositions that
explain/predict/ control; offer a possible understanding of a
particular phenomenon (consensus as to the meaning of something) ;
and/or offer the possibility for emancipation.
KINDS OF THEORY
Within the field of educational technology, like other areas
of study, theories can be classified as either normative or
Normative theory has to do with "the articulation
descriptive.
and justification of a set of values" (Eisner, 1985, p.49) that
identifies a coherent set of beliefs that become the grounds for
action within a particular world-view.
Normative theory is not
concerned with prediction and control, nor empirical
verification.
An example of such normative theory would be the
As Eisner states, "the
articulation of a "philosophy of life".
