Table Of ContentDOCUMENT RESUME
FL 019 288
ED 334 839
Viaggio, Sergio
AUTHOR
Semantic and Communicative Translation: Two
TITLE
Approaches, One Method.
91
PUB DATE
15p.; For a related document, see FL 019 287.
NOTE
Reports - Evaluative/Feasibility (142)
PUB TYPE
MF01/PC01 Plus Postage.
EDRS PRICE
Classroom Techniques; Communication (Thought
DESCRIPTORS
Transfer); Educational Strategies; Language
Proc*ssing; Semantics; Teaching Methods; Theories;
*Translation
*Newmark (Peter)
IDENTIFIERS
ABSTRACT
In a sequel to a *.7eview of the translation theory of
Peter Newmark, it is argued that there is a single best method of
translating regardless of whether the translator takes a semantic,
communicative, or other approach. Methods of traAslating and
approaches to extracting the sense of the text are clearly
distinguished. Newmark is criticized for refusing to distinguish
linguistic meaning irom extra-linguistic sense, which leads him to
advocate literal, even word-tor-word, translation and sometimes to
become entangled in wnrds. Two dissimilar texts, one demanding a
communicative approach (a public notice) and one for which a semantic
approach would be best (a poem), are used to illustrate the point.
For each text, the purpose, formal features, sense, and sense as
semantically structured are examined, and translations into Spanish
are analyzed. Contains 10 references. (MSE)
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TWO APPROACHES,
SEMANTIC AND COMMUNICATIVE TRANSLATION:
ONE
METHOD
by Sergio Viaggio
U.N.
This is but an appendix to a much lengthier piece ir need of
--and argue against--
Peter
discuss
In
publisher.
it
I
a
Newmark denies the possibility of
Newmark's view of translation.
existence of a sinCe method of
a science of translation and the
basis
In what
of
few
the
and
on
follows,
a
translating.
examples, I shall endeavour to show that the method best applied
in translating is --or should be-- one and the same, regardless
of whether, at the re-expression stage, the translator chooses to
follow the semantic er communicative or literal or any other
shall also try and prove that the method itself
approach.
I
proviCes the criteria for giving partial or total preference to
any specific approach or combination thereof.
The terms semantic and communicative are the creatures of
Peter Newmark; in his last opus, A Textbook of Translation, he
comes up with the following gradation:
TARGET LANGUAGE BIAS
SOURCE LANGUAGE BIAS
ADAPTATION
WORD-FOR-WORD
FREE
LITERAL
IDIOMATIC
FAITHFUL
SEMANTIC/COMMUNICATIVE
What follows is an anthology of Newmark's remarks on the
subject:
personal
and
individual,
translation
is
"Semantic
[ST]
follows the thought processes of the author, tends to over-
translate, pursues nuances of meaning, yet aims at concision
Communicative
reproduce pragmatic
impact.
to
order
in
translation [CT] is social, concentrates on the message and
the main force of the text, tends to under-translate, to be
simple, clear and brief, and is always written in a natural
A ST is normally inferior to its
and resourceful style.
original, as there is both cognitive and pragmatic loss
...
ST differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it
must take more account of the aesthetic value (that is, the
beautiful and natural sound) of the SL text, compromising on
'meaning' where appropriate so that no assonance, word-play
CT attempts
version.
or repetition jars in tne finished
...
to render the exact contextual meaning of the original in
way that both content
readily
language
are
and
such
a
Only ST
acceptable and comprehensible to the readership
and CT fulfil the two main aims of translation, which are
'Equivalent
economy
second,
and
accuracy,
...
first,
effect' is the desirable result, rather than the aim of any
translation, bearing in mind that it is an unlikely result
if the purpose of the SL text is to
in two cases:
(a)
U.S DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
vev., Or opmpriS Staled dittus docu
Powts
(Mtce ul Educatonal Research and Improvernem
ofric,a1
mem do no! necessaray represent
"PERMISSION TO REPRODUCE THIS
EOLIC;ATIONAL Hf. SOURCES INFORMATION
OEM position or policy
I -
GUNTER (ERIC)
MATERIAL HAS BEEN GRANTED BY
inns document PINS been reproduced as
2
recmvet1 from the person or orcia.'ration
\NX
1.
oncjinallny
\
err,' fumy Mil ADI C
Minor Changes have been made to Improve
TO THE EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES
affect and the TL translation is to inform (or vice versa);
if there is a pronounced cultural gap between the SL and
(b)
the TL
vocative
CT
the
textee
However,
of
text.
in
equivalent effect is not onll desirable, it is essential.
(1988b, pp. 45-51)
works
meat for the
Newmark's
juicy
much
There
in
is
Basically, I am in agreement
theoretician and the practitioner.
with our author's poles, his main --and capital-- contribution to
Newmark speaks
our discipline, but even here I have my quibbles,
Does he
I am not so sure he is right.
of a putative readership.
really think that Shakespeare addressed his sonnets to himself,
minding a
or that he wrote his plays for his own pleasuh:e without
I can
hoot really how his clientele at The Globe might react?
buy that a few lyric poets may write solipsistically, but not the
No one writes a pla, a novel or
likes of Dickens or Pushkin.
can or will be
love poem without caring whether
it
even
a
I am not saying that authors write exclusively, or
understood.
even mainly, pour la gallerie, but they do normally have a reader
They want, basically,
--albeit an ideal one-- very much in mind.
by
moved
be
We hope
cannot
to
their
move
audience.
to
Shakespeare the way the Globe audience was moved; but we are
A translation of Shakespeare must also aim at moving,
moved.
that's the essential equivalence of effect the translator should
attempt; and this is why any translation of a great work of art
When Newmarx asserts
ought to be itself a great work of art.
that a CT will be better than a ST, that a CT will normally be
better than the original, whilst a ST will be more awkward, that
ST tends to over-
whereas
CT tends
to under-translate,
a
a
translate in search of a nuance of meaning, the --I would bet
unwanted-- implication is that a CT of Hamlet would be better, if
Why?
not than Hamlet, then than a ST of Hanlet.
How can a sonnet in
He states that ST over-translates.
English, with its shorter words, be over-translated in the same
He avers that a ST will be worse
amount of Spanish syllables?
If a good poet translates a bad one, the
than the scure4s text.
I can't
translation is bound to be better than the original.
said that Poe sounds better when
but it
pass judgement,
is
(Newmark mentions Baudelaire's
as
Poe
improved by Baudelaire
If we do
well, but he does not say the translations are better).
not have many more examples it is due to the fact that not many
their
to
condescended
poets
translcice
have
class
first
colleagues.
Where Newmark and
But those quibbles are relatively minor.
when
he
ways
part
krow
translatologist
is
every
almost
I
adamantly refuses to distinguish linguistic meaning form extra-
linguistic sense, which leads him to advocate literal and even
Let us listen to him:
word-for-word translation.
- 2
3
"We do translate words, because there is nothing else to
there
only words
page;
the
on
is
there
are
translate;
one way of looking at
nothing else there.
That
is
...
translation, which suggests it is basically lexical.
This
The basic thought-carrying element of language
is not so.
But since the grammar is expressed only in
is its grammar.
The words must
we have to get the words right.
words,
stretch and give only if the thought is threatened." (1988b,
p. 73)
Asserting that there are nothing but words on the page is
Strictly speaking,
there
either too bold or too timid.
is
interpreting them as words
nothing but a
series of
shapes;
What most
implies seeing an intention behind the contrasts.
translatologists --myself included-- suggest is just taking one
further step and seeing an intention, a sense, behind the words;
linguistic meaning,
we assert, therefore, that those words, that
basically, what the
That is,
must themselves be interpreted.
Parisian interpretive theory --much maligned by Newmark-- boils
Newmark becomes thus entangled rather hopelessly ih
down to.
words:
"I am somewhat of a 'literalist', because I am for truth and
I think that words as well as sentences and texts
accuracy.
have meaning, and you only deviate from literal translation
when there are good semantic and pragmatic reasons for doing
in grey texts.
so, which is more often than not, except
...
The single word is getting swamped in the discourse and the
individual in the mass of society - I am trying to reinstate
to redress the balance."
xi-xii)
(1988b,
pp.
them both,
"However, in CT as in ST, provided that equivalent-effect is
secured, the literal word-for-word translation is not only
is the only valid method of translation."
the best,
it
"For me, a translation can be inaccurate,
(1988a, p. 39)
it can never be too literal." (1988b, p. 72)
in trying to restore the word and the
Newmark is right
But his
individual; I sympathise fully with him in this respect.
literalism turns him into a distinguished heir of St Jerome, the
semantic vs. communicative dichotomy becoming a XXth century re-
incarnation uf the verbum de verbo/sensum de senso controversy.
Of course, ST and CT are but the ,trictly translational poles of
thare is no purely ST or
a continuum and, as Newmark points out,
Still
exclusively CT; both approaches are widely overlapping.
available -
Newmark advccates using ready equivalents whenever
I think
provided accuracy and pragmatic effect are amintained;
is dangerous and does not really work even
in
the approach
Take such a ready correspondence as
otherwise obvious cases.
'question' and 'cuestión', a ST of 'To be or not to be, that is
the question' would presumably be, therefore, 'Ser o no sere esa
To begin with, that is no hendecasyllable (the
es la cuestión'.
iamb); but let
closest formal equivalent to the English five-foot
on the one hand,
us stick to
a
'Question'
'cuestión'.
is,
on the other,
an
is posed,
that
and,
'problem', an
'issue'
Obviously, both
that is asked.
'question'
'interrogation',
a
'Cuestión', for its
So far, so good.
'meanings' are relevant.
part, is more an 'issue' than a 'problem' and has nothing to do
then, very much out cf the
'Cuestión' is,
with 'questioning'.
A
(I am sure Newmark and I see eye to eye so far.)
question.
much better rendition would be 'Ser o no ser, he ahi el dilema'.
'dilemma' as a synonym of
No dictionary that I know of gives
But that is
'question', or 'dilema' as a synorym of 'cuestión'.
The
'sense',
it not?:
'dilemma'.
what Hamlet faces,
a
is
'question'.
with
clear
aptly
perfectly
and
though,
is
'To be or not to
Shakespeare could have written, for instance,
the whole
lost:
effect
is
except
dilemma',
the
that's
be,
nine
neatly
of
consists
line
the
too
long;
'dilemma'
is
monosyllabic words and the final dissyllable, the inverted foot
becoming
by
'that's'.
power
much
loses its
cf
in 'that'
for the very reason he would
Shakespeare chooses
'question'
'Ser o no ser, he
certainly have rejected it in Spanish.
True,
I, nevertheless,
ahi el dilema' is not hendecasyllabic either.
The inverted fourth foot is already a departure
would leave it.
(a very convenient alibi), but
from strict form in the original
version would spoil
even without it, I suggest any addition to my
The syllables in anacrusis, though
the music to keep the notes.
only three, rather than the required six, end in such abyssal a
realise it's been shortchanged.
caesura that the ear doesn't even
possible
A
speech.)
written
much
for
So
ear!
(The
otherwise
most
achieved
by
be
would
hendecasyllabisation
a
Look
acceptable archaism - 'Ser o no ser, aveste es el dilema'.
suitable
a neat ST, a by all means
at all we have accomplished:
archaisation of the language via a very much normal demonstrative
in classic Spanish, and an unimpeachable classic hendecasyllable
The stretching of the acoustic arc
At what price?
to boot...
ciooó // oci000d)o as opposed to the abrupt ciooó // Wocio (Ps close
to Shakespeare's as you can get in this specific instance) wrecks
(A better possibility is 'Ser o no ser, he
the whole exercise.
ahi la disyuntiva', but the problem of the extended acoustic arc
I do not know whether Newmark would
after the caesura remains.)
call my translation semantic or communicative, nor do I really
rhe point is global
care what the label might eventually
be.
other,
coherence and cohesion are best served this way than the
takes precedence
and the most important truth, that of poetry,
towards
demands
fidelity
Newmark
poetics.
that
of
over
Shakespeare
Shakespeare; I submit that one cannot be faithful to
without being also faithful to poetry.
improved - by a
In all probability, my translation can be
poet
better poet applying the same method, and not by an equal
And that method has been a) having a
through a better method.
understanding
clear notion of the purpose of the translation; b)
and
formal
semantic
the
analysing thoroughly
words
and
the
which in
features of the original, c) making sense out of them,
is pondering
turn necessitates resorting to the situation (Hamlet
suicide, whether to kill himself or not; if he is of tW2 minds
about whether to do either of two things, he is very much in the
(two) horns of a dilemma), a sense hinted at by the words, but
lying outside of them; d) re-expressing that sense trying to find
In this
the best and closest formal and functional equivalence.
particular instance, the translator has seen and understood that
inversion,
he is dealing with a five-foot iamb with fourth foot
inversion
that the only dissyllabic word is 'question', that the
produces an unexpected caesura which gives enormous force to
something parallel
He has tried --and failed-- to find
'that'.
He decides --in all conscience-- to make some formal
in Spanish.
concessions, the most important of which is the abrupt breaking
He invokes as
He is not happy with
a
of the metre.
it.
justification the fact that the metre is also done violence in
in that particular line and elsewhere in the
the original
-
And he submits and defends his translation as the
monologue.
which being his
best possible under the circumstances (one of
original
limited talent); e) collating the final version with the
It has been the same
coherence and cohesion.
for accuracy,
teaching for years,
method this translator has been applying and
Security
the same he uses in the interpreters' booth at the U.N.
Council and helping his mother buy the right Revlon cream at
communicative task for the specific
assess his specific
Macy's:
decide what
text in the specific situation, understand the words,
weight to give to the specific form, make out the sense, and re-
suitable form (semantic, communicative,
express it in the most
time
faithful, idiomatic, literal, free) that can be found in the
right extra-linguistic sense
at his disposal; in short, make the
the right linguistic way.
assertion with two widely
I shall now try and illustrate my
One that cries for a communicative approach
dissimilar texts.
and another demanding utmost
(or even an absolutely free one)
Both were analysed earlier this year in my
attention to form.
seminar with the faculty at the translation department of the
School of Foreign Languages, Havana University.
Happy the Man, and happy he alone,
1
He, who can call to-day his own:
He, whc secure within can say,
To-morrow do thy worst, for I have lived to-day!
Restricted area
2
Only ticketed bus passengers beyond this point
Violators will be prosecuted
paraphrase
of
Dryden's
of
beginning
the
The
first
is
Manhattan's
Horace's Ode, the second a notice posted throughout
One is a beautiful piece of XVII-
Port Authority Bus Terminal.
a prosaic and threatening
the other
century English poetry,
I suggested the method
specimen of XX-century US public English.
required respectively to come up with the proper translations is
deciding on the translator's goal, linguistic
one and the same:
analysis of the text, formal analysis of the text, selection of
(both linguistic and aesthetic),
its relevant formal features
linguistic
the
interpretation
of
situation,
the
analysis
of
re-verbalisation of that sense
message in order to extract sense,
azxording to the translator's goal and trying to reproduce as
and
features,
possible
formal
relevant
all
adequately
as
Let us see.
collation of both versions.
TEXT 1.
for my didactic and polemic
stanza
The
Purpose:
is,
a)
I want to come up with a poetic
purposes, a self-contained poem.
translation that will do at least some justice to the original,
pay special attention to what I actually do as I translate so I
can show my colleagues how I show my students that poetry can
processes
different
the
well
as
translated,
indeed
as
be
classical combination of five- and six-
Formal features:
b)
All rhymes oxytonic, but that is
foot iamb, aabb rhyme scheme.
typical of English verse, no meaning should be assigned to the
The language is
fact that there are no paroxytonic endings.
quite modern, save, parhaps, for 'Thy'.
The only true happiness lies in
a) Macroproposition:
Sense:
c)
True happiness
b) Propositions:
intensely living the present.
lies in 1) enjoying the present; 2) having the certainty that one
has lived the present; 3) not fearing the future.
Only that man is happy
The sense as semantically structured:
d)
who can claim possession of to-day, and fearlessly defy destiny
rather
future
the
of
personification
or
any
fortune
or
(a
person at that), by telling him "No
'fickle' and even 'cruel'
matter what doom you may choose to castigate upon me to-morrow,
you cannot take away this day from me, and to-day I have
lived."
'happy', 'alone', 'call', 'to-day', 'his
Key words and syntagms:
There is a
'I have lived'.
'thy worst',
'secure within',
own',
through 'Happy he alone' to
progression from 'Happy the man',
'He, who can call to-day his own'; and a somewhat parallel one
from 'He, who secure within can say' to 'To-morrow do thy worst,
The whole load of the stanza falls
for I have lived to-day'.
The lines carry a proposition each.
The
upon the last line.
macroproposition is repeated in lines two and four.
I first heard this beautifu] four lines at the end of Tony
I didn't know who the author was,
Richardson's film Tom Jones.
This was in 1965,
I think.
but the poem marked me forever.
I
But that
wasn't acquainted at all with English literature.
'for I have
'Happy the man' and, above all, the final
initial
- 6 -
7
Many a time I sought to
lived to-day' haunted me ever since.
More than twenty years
fill in the middle with my own words.
later, in Jamaica, I chanced upon them in Steiner's After Babel.
Spanish
I shall exert myself to come up with the best piece of
I shall also try to
poetry I am capable of tc. convey that sense.
they
since
so
expressions,
words
and
key
equivalent
find
precisely and economically convey that sense
in
beautifully,
Dryden.
more
many
needing
be
that
shall
beforehand
know
I
I
syllables than those 42 to convey as much semantic information.
Spanish offers me, ready-made (and that is a good 'coincidence',
hendecasyllable
nothing else), the roughly equivalent meters:
The last
themselves masters of our poetics.
and alexandrine,
line being the whole point of the original, it must also be the
Everything else is, then, more or
crowning of the translation.
less negotiable; everything else will therefore depend on this
This line
line, will have to lead up to it and rhyme with it.
An almost literal translation comes
should be attempted first.
(I can see Newmark
'pues que he
ivido hoy'
readily to mind:
It makes exactly the same sense as
smiling in triumph).
Good!
blissfully
the equivalent fragment in the original and it
is,
Maybe I can complete it
enough, a perfect alexandrine hemistich.
Obviously Fortune
'To-morrow do thy worst', who?
backwards.
What could 'her worst'
(fickle, capricious, reckless, cruel...)
'Me matarás maiiana,
Non-life; metaphorical or actual death.
be?
Only the de-verbalisation of
pues que he vivido hoy'.
'thy
'Pues que'
can lead to
'You may kill me to-morrow'.
worst'
sounds weak and convoluted; better a simple 'pero'.
The last line has come off so neatly that I'll endeavour to
I desperately need a rhyme for
preserve it no matter what.
aside from pilfered words such as
Forget
'meaning':
'hoy'.
all of them first person
there are only four rhymes,
convoy,
and 'soy'.
singular present indicative:
'voy'
'estoy',
'doy',
Either I stick one of them into any of the lines or I have to
Suddenly I see light:
the
relinquish my gorgeous fourth line.
the owner of this
man who can claim to-day as his own says 'I am
Now, I have to manage to end
'I am' = 'soy'; hallelujah!
day';
(I legitimately discard the
any of the other lines with that.
I don't feel bound to keep it, since any other two-
aabb scheme,
Now for the next more
rhyme scheme will do - abab or abba.)
the beginning, the 'Happy' that will resolve
important feature:
options,
two
the
basically
have
itself 'To-day'.
I
in
The hendecasyllable will
hendecasyllable and the alexandrine.
de iand a stress on the sixth syllable or, possibly, on the fourth
'Feliz del hombre
'Feliz del hombre o-o-6-o soy'...
and eighth.
'within', but
que se dice 'Soy...", that se dice could do for
himself, but 'within',
'secure'...
it's too weak; no, not
'to'
But 'alone'
Better.
'Feliz de aquél que puede decir 'Soy...'
'Feliz de aquél que puedo decir
is missing; make a note of it.
is too much
not quite.
'Soy / el
duerio de hoy'...;
'Hoy'
- 7 -
Peter
resounding (one of four '-oy, words in Spanish, remember?)
Newmark's assertion notwithstanding, never mind whether Dryden
repeats it three times, it is the last one that really laatters so
I save 'hoy' for the last round.
connote
or
the
denote
will
that
expression
need
an
I
'el duetio del dia que me toca...'
I think I've got it:
present.
Wait, I'm one syllable short (that anacrusis always gets me); how
Much better; and 'this
about 'el duelio de este dia que me toca'?
So far
day' brings us closer to 'to-day' than simply 'the day'.
I've got 'Feliz de aquél que puede decir "Soy / el dueño de este
ipero he vivido
dia que me taca" /...
"Me matarás maiianal
/
in the bla.lk
not bad at all!
hoy!"
Can
fill
Not bad;
I
need an
in
(whatever,
For that,
decently enough?
'-oca'
I
If you find my procedure
the semantic meaning).
principle,
that when
am
only disclaimer
my
is
somewhat pedestrian,
I
wrestling with a sonnet of my own, I go about it exactly the same
please, rather
way, except that I can always write whatever I
(In this I am consistent with
than mind Dryden or anybody else.
writes; I use
my principle that one should translate the way one
language the same way whether I want to communicate my own sense
or someone else's.)
Loca dawns upon me.
So I must look for a suitable '-oca'.
Somewhere in the back of my mind I know that
I think I know why:
my
checking
be
on
I'll
Fortune
(later
talking
about
I'm
translation against the original and discover that Dryden is
indeed referring to Fortune; it must have stuck with me, or, more
probably, it's the most plausible personification); anyway, now I
My basic sense will doubtless be y decir a la
have Fortuna loca.
Fortuna loca; but this man must say it so that it will be obvious
He must aver bluntly,
that he is very much 'secure within'.
is an apt verb.
'Espetar'
assuredly...
defiantly,
daringly,
Let me
'en el rosto'.
'Espetar en la cara', or, more nobly,
'Feliz de aqua que puede decir "Soy / el dueño de este dia
see:
la Fortuna loca / "Me
que me toca" / y espetar en 31 rostro a
Now, remember
Good boy!
matarás malianal ipero he vivido hoy!"'
about the 'alone'; perhaps 'Feliz solo de aqudl que puede decir
My first version respects the metre; this one turns the
"Soy...
hemistiches
are
both
alexandrine;
also,
into
an
line
first
oxytonic; it would sound better if the first one were not (to my
only ones that count for
ears, of course, but then those are the
A possible solution is becoming more literal and go
the nonce).
but el hombre
for Feliz solo del hombre que puede decir "Soy
IK
,
I listen to all three variants repeatedly in my
is too specific.
there is no
mind and decide that 'alone' adds a crucial element:
grasped
quite
it
hadn't
present
one;
the
happiness
I
lout
(too much attention to words and sounds,
probably).
initially
It would not
The third line also turns out to be an alexandrine.
instead of the last line standing
be a problem, but that now,
Can I shorten it, so that
out, the second one gets shortchanged.
'y decir fiero a la Fortuna
I think olf
symmetry is restored?
8
SIM
9
meanings of
that time kept the
loca'; maybe Spanish had at
opposed
side with that of 'wild', as
'proud' and 'fierce' side by
Alonso
I put back my Martin
No such luck.
to to-days's 'ugly'.
inner files, I
I rummage through my
disappointedly on its shelf.
On my way
Back to the dictionaries.
hm...
run into 'altivo'...
will
Julio Casares
'gallardo'.
ponder
the bookshelf
to
I
and 'valiant'.
both 'proud'
probably have an adjective meaning
further
until
My search is over..,
Sure enough:
'bravo'.
that a translation
(Newmark is again right when he warns
notice.
So my latest update becomes:
is never really finished!)
decir "Soy
Feliz solo de aqua que puede
toca"
el duefio de este dia que me
Fortuna loca
y espetar bravo a la
vivido hoy!"
"Me mataras mahanal pero he
this
/ Am the the master of
("Happy only he who can say "I
fickle
/ And bravely say to
day that's been alloted to me"
to-morrow, but I have lived to-
Fortune / "You may kill me
day!"]
My next step will be
out.
With it, my last line also stands
By the way, Peter Newmark
cutting that first alexandrine short.
the head when he asserts
hits the nail one more time squarely on
the
basically to reproduce the effect
that the translator seeks
I wish I had been
than on its readership.
poem had on him rather
gratitude I've
lines; through love and
the cne to write those
them in
is why I wanted to translate
made them my own, and that
them, as my
is how I want to translate
the first place, and that
marvel at and be
will be able to understand,
own, so that others
moved by them.
TEXT 2:
how to approach
Again, I want to show my st.udents
Purpose:
a)
this other kind of text.
Its sole aim is to keep
A public notice.
Formal features:
b)
must
It
platform.
the
entering
from
people
non-ticketed
It must also fit the
in Spanish.
accomplish the same goal
Everything else may
legibly so.
roughly two-by-two foot area and
be negotiated.
unless you have a ticket.
You can't go through
Sense:
c)
'title', the
A general
strutured:
Sense as semantically
d)
redundancies, a threat.
notice itself with a host of
of poetry
after an equivalent piece
If with Dryden I was
the
6ensitising
aesthetically
of
efi,ct
with the equivalent
piece of
will seek an equivalent
reader to the same sense, now I
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